Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/lightshipslighthOOtalb 


LIGHTSHIPS   AND    LIGHTHOUSES 


By  pc7'niissio7i  of  Messrs.  Siemens  Bros.  &  Co.^  Ltd. 

THE   43,000,000   CAXDLE-POWER   BEAMS   THROWN   FROM   THE    HELIGOLAND 

LIGHTHOUSE. 

Being  projected  from  a  height  oi  272  feet  above  the  sea,  the  beacon  has  a  range  of  23  miles,  and  on  a 
clear  night  the  rays  are  seen  from  Biisun,  35  miles  away. 


Ftoniispiecc. 


CONQUESTS  OF  SCIENCE 


LIGHTSHIPS    AND 
LIGHTHOUSES 


FREDERICK    A.    TALBOT    ^^  ^ 

author  of 
'moving  pictures,"  "railway  conquest  of  the  world,"  "the  steamship 
conquest  of  the  world,"  etc. 


ILLUSTRATED 


eOSTO^S  COLLEGE  UBRAR^ 

k    eHESTWUT  HiLL.  MASS. 


PHILADELPHIA  :  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 
LONDON:  WILLIAM  HEINEMANN 

1913 


Printed  in  England, 


MA»fc  AN«   f«IINTM 


T 


PREFACE 

Romances  innumerable  have  been  woven  around  the  flaming 
guardians  of  the  coast,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  purely 
imaginative  work  is  so  fascinating  and  absorbing  as  the  plain 
unvarnished  narrative  of  how  some  famous  lightship  or 
lighthouse  has  been  brought  into  existence.  And  the  story 
of  construction  is  equalled  in  every  way  by  that  relating  to 
the  operation  and  maintenance  of  the  light,  against  all  odds, 
for  the  guidance  of  those  who  have  business  upon  the  ocean. 

This  volume  is  not  a  history  of  lightships  and  lighthouses  ; 
neither  is  it  a  technical  treatise.  Rather  my  object  has  been 
to  relate  how  the  difficulties,  peculiar  and  prodigious,  have 
been  overcome  by  the  builders  in  their  efforts  to  mark  some 
terrible  danger-spots,  both  on  the  mainland  and  isolated 
sea-rocks. 

While  the  lines  of  the  lightship  and  lighthouse  are  familiar 
to  all,  popular  knowledge  concerning  the  internal  apparatus 
of  the  building  or  ship  is  somewhat  hazy.  Therefore  I  have 
explained,  with  technicalities  simplified  as  much  as  possible, 
the  equipment  of  the  tower  and  vessel,  and  the  methods 
whereby  both  visual  and  audible  warnings  are  given.  The 
very  latest  developments  in  this  field  of  engineering  and 
science  are  incorporated,  so  as  to  render  the  subject  as  com- 
prehensive as  possible  within  the  limits  of  a  single  volume. 

In  the  compilation  of  this  book  I  have  received  the 
heartiest  assistance  from  those  who  are  prominently  associ- 
ated with  the  work  of  providing  adequate  aids  to  navigation, 
and  am  particularly  indebted  to  the  engineers  to  the  Com- 
missioners of  Northern  Lights,  Messrs.  D.  and  C.  Stevenson; 


vi  PREFACE 

Lieutenant-Colonel  William  P.  Anderson,  the  Engineer-in- 

Cliief    to    the    Lighthouse    Department    of    the    Canadian 

Government ;  the  various  officials  of  the  Lighthouse  Board 

of  the  United  States  of  America ;  the  Engineer-in-Chief  to 

the  French  Service  des  Pliares  ;  the  lighthouse  authorities  of 

New  South  Wales  and  New  Zealand ;  Mr.  Gustaf  Dalen  and 

his   assistants ;    Messrs.   Chance    Brothers    and    Company, 

Limited,  of  Birmingham ;  Messrs.  Edmondsons,  Limited,  of 

Dublin ;  Samuel  Strain,  Esq.,  the  Director  of  the  Lighthouse 

Literature  Mission,  Belfast ;  the  Scientific  American,  and  the 

Syren  and  Shipping,  etc. 

FREDERICK  A.  TALBOT. 

June,  1 91 3. 


CONTENTS 


CKAPTER  PAGE 

I.  THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE    LIGHTHOUSE                  .                  .                  .1 

II.  BUILDING   A    LIGHTHOUSE                    .                  .                  .                  .II 

III.  THE   LIGHT    AND    ILLUMINANTS        .  .                  .                  .28 

IV.  FOG-SIGNALS  .                  .                  .                  .                  .                  -57 
V.  THE   EDDYSTONE    LIGHTHOUSE         .                  .                  .                  •         1~ 

VI.  SOME    FAMOUS    LIGHTS    OF    ENGLAND            .                  ,                  .          81 

VII.  THE    BELL    r6cK   AND    SKERRYVORE    LIGHTS             .                  .         96 

VIII.  THE    LONELY    LIGHTS    OF   SCOTLAND              .                  .                  .       I08 

IX.  THE   FASTNET,    THE    OUTPOST    OF   EUROPE                  .                  .121 

X.  LIGHTHOUSES    BUILT    ON    SAND        ....       I32 

XI.  SOME    LIGHT    PATROLS    OF   THE    FRENCH    COAST      .                  .       I48 

XII.  THE    GUARDIAN    LIGHTS    OF    CANADA'S    COAST          .                  .       16I 

XIII.  THE    MINOT's    LEDGE    LIGHT  .                  .                  .                  .       176 

XIV.  THE    TILLAMOOK    ROCK    LIGHT-STATION        .  .                  -       1 83 
XV.  THE    COAST   LIGHTS    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES           •                  .       I96 

XVI.  THE     LAMP-POSTS     OF     THE      GREAT      LAKES     OF     NORTH 

AMERICA  .  .....       208 

XVII.  THE    MOST    POWERFUL    ELECTRIC    LIGHTHOUSES    OF    THE 

WORLD  .  .  .  .  .  .218 

XVIII.  SOME   LIGHTHOUSES    IN    AUSTRALIAN    WATERS         .                  .      229 

XIX.  THE    SIGNPOSTS    OF    THE    SANDBANKS            .                  .                  .       24O 

XX.  A   FLAMING   SENTINEL   OF   THE    MALACCA   STRAITS                 .       257 

XXI.  UNATTENDED    LIGHTHOUSES               ....       267 

XXII.  FLOATING   LIGHTHOUSES     .....       284 

XXIII.  THE    LIGHT-KEEPER   AND    HIS    LIFE                .                  .                  -301 

INDEX  .  .  .  .  .  .  -318 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  TAGE 

The  43,000,000  Candle-Power  Beams  thrown  from  the  Heligo- 
land Lighthouse         ....  Frontispiece 

How  the  Beachy  Head  Lighthouse  was  built      .  .  .6 

Workmen  returning  by  the  Aerial  Cableway  to  the   Top   of 

Beachy  Head  ......         7 

The  Sanganeb  Reef  Lighthouse  in  the  Red  Sea  .  .  -14 

The  Alcatraz  Lighthouse  under  Construction     .  .  -15 

The  Alcatraz  Lighthouse  completed         .  .  .  •       15 

The  Thimble  Shoals  Light  .  .  .  .  .22 

Setting  the  Last  Stone  of  the  Beachy  Head  Lighthouse  .       23 

The    Hyperradial   Apparatus    for   the    Manora    Point    Light, 

Karachi,  India  .  .  .  .  .  .48 

First  Order  Triple  Flashing  Light  of  920  Millimetres   Focal 

Distance  for  Chilang  Lighthouse,  China       .  .  .49 

Looking  up  the  Lantern  of  the  Needles  Lighthouse       •  .       52 

Fixed  Apparatus  of  the  Fourth  Order  for  Sarawak       .  -53 

A  Modern  Lighthouse  Siren  Plant  .  .  .  '58 

The  Sirens  of  the  Lizard  .  .  •  .  .59 

The  Acetylene  Fog-Gun  .  .  .  .  .  .64 

The  Rattray  Head  Lighthouse    .  .  .  .  -65 

Sule  Skerry  Light  .  .....       65 

The  Eddystone,  the  Most  Famous  Lighthouse  of  England        .       76 
A  Thrilling  Experience    .  .  .  .  .  -77 

The  "  Bishop,"  the  Western  Outpost  of  England  .  .       82 

The  Wolf  Rock  Lighthouse  .  .  .  .  -83 

The  Longships  Light        .  .  .  .  .  .88 

The  Godrevy  Light,  Scilly  Islands  .  .  .  .89 

The  Chicken  Rock  Lighthouse,  oil  the  Isle  of  Man        .  .       92 

How  the  Skerryvore  is  built        .  .  .  .  -93 

The  Skerryvore,  Scotland's  Most  Famous  Lighthouse   .  .102 

Barra  Head  Lighthouse,  Scotland  .  .  .  -103 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PAGE 

The  Homes  of  the  Keepers  of  the  Skerryvore  and  Dhu-Hear- 
tach  Lights    ...... 

The  Dhu-Heartach  Lighthouse    .... 

The  North  Unst,  Britain's  most  Northerly  Lighthouse 

The  North  Unst  Light     ..... 

Landing  Water  at  the  North  Unst 

The  Flannen  Islands  Light-Station 

Building  the  Fastnet  Rock  Lighthouse  .  .  : 

Building  the  Fastnet  Tower         .... 

Erecting  the  Fastnet  Lantern      .... 

The  Fastnet,  the  Outpost  of  Europe 

The  Lantern  of  the  Fastnet  Rock  Lighthouse    . 

The  Rothersand  Lighthouse        .... 

The  Fourteen-Foot  Bank  Lighthouse,  built  on  Sand 

The  Heaux  de  Brehat  Light        .... 

Fitting  the  Lantern  of  La  Jument  Light 

Preparing  the  Foundations  of  the  Jument  Tower 

The  Jument  Light  recently  erected  ofi  Ushant . 

The  Cape  Race  Lighthouse,  Newfoundland 

Cann  Island  Lighthouse,  on  the  East  Coast  of  Newfoundland 

The  Light  at  the  Southern  End  of  Belle  lie       . 

The  North  Belle  He  Lighthouse  .... 
.  A  Magnificent  Canadian  Light  on  the  Pacific  Coast 

The  West  End  Guardian  of  Sable  Island 

St.  Esprit  Island  Light,  Nova  Scotia 

The  Gull  Island  Light,  Newfoundland    . 

The  Batiscan  Front  Range  Lighthouse,  River  St.  Lawrence 

Isle   St.   Therese   Upper   Range   Back  Lighthouse,   River  St. 
Lawrence       ...... 

Upper  Traverse  Lighthouse  in  the  River  St.  Lavirrence 

An    "  Ice  Shove  "   upon  the  Back  Range  Light  in  Lake  St. 
Peter  ...... 

The  Minot's  Ledge  Light  .  .  .  . 

Tender  landing  Building  Material  upon  the  Tillamook  Rock 

The  TiUamook  Rock  Light-Station  from  the  South 

The  Conquest  of  the  Tillamook  .  .  .  . 

The  Terrible  Tillamook  Rock 

Famous  United  States  Lighthouses  of  Two  Centuries  . 

The  Race  Rock  Light      ..... 

The  Carquinez  Strait  Light  .... 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

FACING  PAGE 

A  Church  as  a  Lighthouse  .  .  .  .  -199 

The  Bonita  Point  Lighthouse  off  the  Californian  Coast  .     202 

Point  Pinos  Light- Station,  California  ....  203 
The  Farallon  Rock  a,nd  Light  .....  204 
The  Farallon  Lighthouse  off  San  Francisco         .  .  .     204 

The  Punta  Gorda  Light-Station,  California         .  .  .     205 

A  Lighthouse  on  the  Great  Lakes  in  the  Grip  of  Winter  .     210 

Building  the  Barre  a  Boulard  Light  in  the  River  St.  Lawrence  211 
Colchester  Reef  Lighthouse,  Lake  Erie  .  .  .  .214 

The  Latest  Development  in  Lighthouse  Engmecring     .  -215 

The  Electric  Searchlights  of  the  Heligoland  Lighthouse  .     222 

The  Heligoland  Lighthouse  .  .  .  .  -223 

Green  Cape  Lighthouse,  New  South  Wales  .  .  -232 

The  Sentinel  of  Sugar  Loaf  Point,  New  South  Wales    .  .     232 

"  Bungaree  Norah  "  Station,  New  South  Wales  .  -232 

The  Cape  Byron  Lighthouse,  New  South  Wales  .  .     233 

The  Macquarie  Lighthouse,  South  Head  of  Sydney  Harbour  .  233 
Painting  the  Troubridge  Lighthouse,  South  Australia  .  .     234 

Green  Point  Lighthouse,  Natal   .  .  .  .  -235 

The  Pacific  Outpost  of  the  United  States  of  America    .  '235 

The  Seven  Stones  Lightship  .  .  .  ,  .242 

The  San  Francisco  Lightship      .  .  .  .  .243 

The  Norderney  Lightship  .  .  .  .  -250 

The  Fire  Island  Lightship,  the  Atlantic  Outpost  of  the  United 

States  ....... 

Completing  the  One-Fathom  Bank  Lighthouse  in  the  Malacca 

Straits  ....... 

The  One-Fathom  Bank  Lighthouse,  Malacca  Straits,  in  Course 

of  Erection    ....... 

The  Platte  Fougere  Lighthouse  under  Construction 

The  Platte  Fougere  Lighthouse    ..... 

Setting  the  Compressed-Air  Reservoir  at  Fort  Doyle     . 

The  Fort  Doyle  Siren       ...... 

An  Unattended  Beacon  Light  placed  upon  a  Wild  Part  of  the 

Scottish  Coast  ...... 

The  Gasfeten  Light:  a  Lonely  Beacon  in  Swedish  Waters 
The  Dalen  "  Sun -Valve,"  the  Most  Wonderful  Invention    of 

Modem  Lighthouse  Engineering       .... 
The  Gas  Accumulators  Employed  with  the  Dalen  Automatic 

System  ....... 


251 
262 

263 
268 
269 
270 
271 

272 
273 

274 
275 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING  PAGE 

The  Lagerholmen  Lighthouse  .....  278 
An  Unattended  Beacon  Light  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan  .     279 

An  Automatic  Lightboat  .  .  .  .  -279 

The  Wigham  Thirty-One  Day  Unattended  Petroleum  Light  .  280 
WiUson  Automatic  Gas  and  Whistling  Light  off  Egg  Island, 

Nova  Scotia  .......     281 

The  "  Outer  Automatic"  Combined  Gas  and  Whistling  Light, 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia  .....     281 

The  Svinbadan  Unattended  Lightship  in  Swedish  Waters  .  292 
The  Kalkgvundet,  Sweden's  Latest  Automatic  Lightship  .     293 

The  Lantern  used  in  the  Wigham  Automatic  Petroleum  Beacon  298 
The  "6-Bar"  Floating  Wigham  Light  in  Portsmouth  Harbour  299 
The  Pumps  whereby  the  Oil  is  lifted  from  the  Lowest  Floor 

to  the  Lantern  Room  .  .  .  .  .306 

Combined  Kitchen  and  Living- Room  in  the  Lighthouse  .     307 

Keeper  cleaning  the  Lamp  after  it  has  cooled  down      .  -312 

A  Lighthouse  Bedroom    .  .  .  .  .  -313 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  LIGHTHOUSE 

The  mariner,  in  pursuit  of  his  daily  business,  is  exposed  to 
dangers  innumerable.  In  mid-ocean,  for  the  most  part,  he 
need  not  fear  them  particularly,  because  he  has  plenty  of 
sea-room  in  which  to  navigate  his  ship,  and  in  case  of  thick 
fog  he  can  ease  up  until  this  dreaded  enemy  lifts  or  disperses- 
But  in  crowded  coastal  waters  his  position  is  often  pre- 
carious, for  he  may  be  menaced  by  lurking  shoals  or  hidden 
reefs,  which  betray  little  or  no  indication  of  their  where- 
abouts, and  which  may  be  crossed  with  apparent  safety. 
If  the  ship  blunders  on  in  ignorance,  it  is  brought  up  with 
a  thud  as  it  buries  its  nose  in  the  sucking  sand,  or  gives 
a  mighty  shiver  as  it  scrapes  over  the  rocky  teeth,  perhaps 
to  be  clasped  as  in  a  vice,  or  to  be  battered  and  broken 
so  fearfully  that,  when  at  last  it  tears  itself  free  and  slips 
off  into  deep  water,  it  can  only  founder  immediately.  Here, 
if  fog  blots  out  the  scene,  the  ship  is  in  danger  of  being 
lured  to  certain  destruction  by  currents  and  other  natural 
forces,  since  the  captain  is  condemned  to  a  helplessness  as 
complete  as  of  a  blind  man  in  a  busy  street. 

It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  the  captain,  as  he  ap- 
proaches or  wanders  along  a  tortuous  shoreline,  scans  the 
waters  eagerly  for  a  glimpse  of  the  guardian  monitor,  which, 
as  he  knows  from  his  reckonings  and  chart,  should  come 
within  sight  to  guide  him  on  his  way.  The  danger-signal 
may  be  one  of  many  kinds — a  misty,  star-like  glimmer 
thrown  from  a  buoy  dancing  on  the  waves,  the  radiant  orb 
from  a  lightship  bobbing  up  and  down  and  swinging  rhyth- 
mically to  and  fro,  a  fixed  flare-light,  or  dazzling,  spoke- 
like rays  revolving  across  the  sky.  If  sight  be  impossible 
owing  to  fog,  he  must  depend  upon  his  ear  for  the  measured 


2  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

tolling  of  a  bell,  the  shriek  of  a  whistle,  the  deep  blare  of  a 
siren,  or  the  sharp  report  of  an  explosive.  When  he  has 
picked  up  one  or  other  of  these  warnings,  he  feels  more  at 
ease,  and  proceeds  upon  his  way,  eyes  and  ears  keenly 
strained  for  warning  of  the  next  danger  ahead. 

The  lighthouse  is  the  greatest  blessing  that  has  been 
bestowed  upon  navigation.  It  renders  advance  through 
the  waters  at  night  as  safe  and  as  simple  as  in  the  brilliancy 
of  the  midday  sun.  But  for  these  beacons  the  safe  move- 
ment of  ships  at  night  or  during  fog  along  the  crowded 
steamship  highways  which  surround  the  serrated  shores  of 
the  five  continents  would  be  impossible.  It  is  only  natural, 
therefore,  that  the  various  nations  of  the  world  should  strenu- 
ously endeavour  to  light  their  coasts  so  adequately  that  the 
ship  may  proceed  at  night  as  safely  arid  as  comfortably  as  a 
man  may  walk  down  an  illuminated  city  thoroughfare. 

Whence  came  the  idea  of  lighting  the  coastline  with 
flaring  beacons  ?  It  is  impossible  to  say.  They  have 
been  handed  down  to  modern  civilization  through  the  mists 
of  time.  The  first  authentic  lighthouse  was  Sigeum,  on 
the  Hellespont,  which  undoubtedly  antedates  the  famous 
Pharos  of  Alexand.ria.  The  latter  was  a  massive  square 
tower,  400  feet  high,  and  was  known  as  one  of  the  Seven 
Wonders  of  the  World.  It  was  built  about  331  B.C.  The 
warning  light  was  emitted  from  a  huge  wood  fire,  which 
was  kept  burning  at  the  summit  continuously  during  the 
night ;  the  illumination  is  stated  to  have  been  visible  for 
a  distance  of  forty  miles,  but  modern  knowledge  disputes 
this  range.  The  precise  design  of  this  wonderful  tower  is 
unknown,  but  it  must  have  been  a  huge  structure,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  computed  to  have  cost  the  equivalent  in  modern 
money  of  over  £200,000,  or  $1,000,000. 

For  sixteen  hundred  years  it  guided  the  navigators  among 
the  waters  from  which  it  reared  its  smoking  crest,  and  then 
it  disappeared.  How,  no  one  knows,  although  it  is  surmised 
that  it  was  razed  by  an  earthquake  ;  but,  although  it  was 
swept  from  sight,  its  memory  has  been  preserved,  and  the 
French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  nations  use  its  name  in  con- 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  LIGHTHOUSE  3 

nection  with  the  lighthouse,  which  in  France  is  called 
phare  ;  in  the  other  two  countries  mentioned,  faro. 

The  Romans  in  their  conquest  of  Gaul  and  Britain 
brought  the  lighthouse  with  them,  and  several  remains  of 
their  efforts  in  this  direction  are  to  be  found  in  England, 
notably  the  pharos  at  Dover. 

In  all  probability,  however,  the  lighthouse  in  its  most 
primitive  form  is  at  least  as  old  as  the  earliest  books  of  the 
Bible.  Undoubtedly  it  sprang  from  the  practice  of  guiding 
the  incoming  boatman  to  his  home  by  means  of  a  blazing 
bonfire  set  up  in  a  conspicuous  position  near  by.  Such  a 
guide  is  a  perfectly  obvious  device,  which  even  to-day  is 
practised  by  certain  savage  tribes. 

When  the  Phoenicians  traded  in  tin  with  the  ancient 
Britons  of  Cornwall,  their  boats  continually  traversed  the 
rough  waters  washing  the  western  coasts  of  Spain,  where, 
for  the  safer  passage  of  their  sailors,  doubtless,  they  erected 
beacons  upon  prominent  headlands.  The  oldest  lighthouse 
in  the  world  to-day,  which  in  some  quarters  is  held  to  be 
of  Phoenician  origin,  is  that  at  Corunna,  a  few  miles  north 
of  Cape  Finisterre.  Other  authorities  maintain  that  it  was 
built  during  the  reign  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Trajan.  In 
1634  it  was  reconstructed,  and  is  still  in  existence. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde  is  another  highly  interesting 
link  with  past  efforts  and  triumphs  in  Hghthouse  engineer- 
ing. The  Gironde  River  empties  itself  into  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  through  a  wide  estuary,  in  the  centre  of  which  is 
a  bunch  of  rocks  offering  a  terrible  menace  to  vessels. 
This  situation  achieved  an  unenviable  reputation  in  the 
days  when  ships  first  ventured  out  to  sea.  Being  exposed 
to  the  broad  Atlantic,  it  receives  the  full  force  of  the  gales 
which  rage  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  which  make  of  the 
Gironde  River  estuary  a  fearful  trap.  The  trading  town  of 
Bordeaux  suffered  severely  from  the  ill  fame  attached  to 
the  mouth  of  the  waterway  upon  which  it  was  dependent, 
for  both  the  sea  and  the  roads  exacted  a  heavy  toll  among 
the  ships  which  traded  with  the  famous  wine  capital  of 
Gascony.      How  many   fine   vessels   struck   the   rocks   of 


4  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

Cordouan  and  went  to  pieces  within  sight  of  land,  history 
does  not  record,  but  the  casualties  became  so  numerous 
that  at  last  the  firms  trading  with  Bordeaux  refused  to 
venture  into  the  Gironde  unless  a  light  were  placed  on  the 
reef  to  guide  their  captains.  Alarmed  at  the  prospect  of 
losing  their  remunerative  traffic,  the  citizens  of  Bordeaux 
built  a  tower  upon  the  deadly  reef,  with  a  beacon  which  they 
kept  stoked  with  wood,  four  men  being  reserved  for  its 
service.  In  return  the  authorities  exacted  a  tax  from  each 
vessel  arriving  and  leaving  the  port,  in  order  to  defray  the 
expense  thus  incurred.  Probably  from  this  action  originated 
the  custom  of  lighthouse  dues. 

This  bonfire  served  its  purposes  until  the  Black  Prince 
brought  Gascony  under  his  power.  He  demolished  the 
primitive  beacon,  and  erected  in  its  place  another  tower, 
40  feet  high,  on  which  the  chauffer  was  placed,  a  hermit 
being  entrusted  with  the  maintenance  of  the  light  at  night. 
Near  the  lighthouse' — if  such  it  can  be  called' — a  chapel  was 
built,  around  which  a  fevv^  fishermen  erected  their  dwellings. 
When  the  hermit  died,  no  one  offered  to  take  his  place. 
The  beacon  went  untended,  the  fishermen  departed,  and 
the  reef  once  more  was  allowed  to  claim  its  victims  from 
shipping  venturing  into  the  estuary. 

In  1584  an  eminent  French  architect,  Louis  de  Foix, 
secured  the  requisite  concession  to  build  a  new  structure. 
He  evolved  the  fantastic  idea  of  a  single  building  which 
should  comprise  a  beacon,  a  church  and  a  royal  residence 
in  one.  For  nearly  twenty-seven  years  he  laboured  upon 
the  rock,  exposed  to  the  elements,  before  he  (or  rather  his 
successor)  was  able  to  throw  the  welcome  warning  rays 
from  the  summit  of  his  creation.  This  was  certainly  the 
most  remarkable  lighthouse  that  has  ever  been  set  up.  It 
was  richly  decorated  and  artistically  embellished,  and  the 
tower  was  in  reality  a  series  of  galleries  rising  tier  upon  tier. 
At  the  base  was  a  circular  stone  platform,  134  feet  in 
diameter,  flanked  by  an  elegant  parapet  surrounding  the 
light-keepers'  abode.  This  lower  structure  was  intended 
to  form  a  kind  of  breakwater  which  should  protect  the 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  LIGHTHOUSE  5 

main  building  from  the  force  of  the  waves.  On  the  first 
floor  was  a  magnificent  entrance  hall,  leading  to  the  King's 
apartment,  a  salon  finely  decorated  with  pillars  and  mural 
sculptures.  Above  was  a  beautiful  chapel  with  a  lofty  roof 
supported  by  carved  Corinthian  columns.  Finally  came 
the  beacon,  which  at  that  date  was  about  100  feet  above 
the  sea-level. 

Access  to  the  successive  floors  was  provided  by  a  beautiful 
spiral  staircase,  the  newels  of  which  were  flanked  by  busts 
of  the  two  French  Kings,  Henry  III.  and  Henry  IV.,  and  of 
the  designer  de  Foix.  The  architect  died  not  long  before  his 
work  was  completed,  but  the  directions  he  left  behind  him 
were  so  explicit  that  no  difficulty  was  experienced  in  con- 
summating his  ideas,  and  the  Tour  de  Cordouan  shed  its 
beneficial  light  for  the  first  time  over  the  waters  of  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  in  1611.  So  strongly  was  the  building  founded 
that  it  has  defied  the  attacks  of  Nature  to  this  day,  although 
it  did  not  escape  those  of  the  vandals  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, who  penetrated  the  tower,  where  the  busts  of  the 
two  Henrys  at  once  excited  their  passion.  The  symbols 
of  monarchy  were  promptly  hurled  to  the  floor,  and  other 
damage  was  inflicted.  When  order  was  restored,  the  busts 
were  replaced,  and  all  the  carvings  which  had  suffered 
mutilation  from  mob  law  were  restored.  At  the  same  time, 
in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  progress,  the  tower  was 
modified  to  bring  it  into  line  with  modern  lighting  principles  ; 
it  was  extended  to  a  height  of  197  feet,  and  was  crowned 
with  an  up-to-date  light,  visible  twenty-seven  miles  out  to 
sea.  For  more  than  three  centuries  it  has  fulfilled  its  de- 
signed purpose,  and  still  ranks  as  the  most  magnificent 
lighthouse  that  ever  has  been  built.  Its  cost  is  not  re- 
corded, but  it  must  necessarily  have  been  enormous. 

In  Great  Britain  the  seafarer's  warning  light  followed  the 
lines  of  those  in  vogue  upon  the  older  part  of  the  Continent, 
consisting  chiefly  of  wood  and  coal  fires  mounted  on  con- 
spicuous lofty  points  around  the  coast.  These  braziers 
were  maintained  both  by  public  and  by  private  enterprise. 
Patents  were  granted  to  certain  individuals  for  the  upkeep 


6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

of  beacons  in  England  and  Scotland,  and  from  time  to  time 
the  holders  of  these  rights  came  into  conflict  with  the  public 
authority  which  was  created  subsequently  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  various  aids  to  navigation  around  the  coasts.  In 
England  these  monopolies  were  not  extinguished  until  1836, 
when  the  Brethren  of  Trinity  House  were  empowered,  by 
special  Act  of  Parliament,  to  purchase  the  lights  which 
had  been  provided  both  by  the  Crown  and  by  private 
interests,  so  as  to  bring  the  control  under  one  corporation. 

The  chauffer,  however,  was  an  unsatisfactory  as  well  as 
an  expensive  type  of  beacon.  Some  of  these  grates  con- 
sumed as  many  as  400  tons  of  coal  per  annum — more  than 
a  ton  of  coal  per  night — in  addition  to  vast  quantities  of 
wood.  Being  com.pletely  exposed,  they  were  subject  to 
the  caprices  of  the  wind.  When  a  gale  blew  off  the  land, 
the  light  on  the  sea  side  was  of  great  relative  brilliancy ; 
but  when  off  the  water,  the  side  of  the  fire  facing  the  sea 
would  be  quite  black,  whereas  on  the  landward  side  the 
fire  bars  were  almost  melting  under  the  fierce  heat  generated 
by  the  intense  draughts.  This  was  the  greater  drawback, 
because  it  was,  of  course,  precisely  when  the  wind  was 
making  a  lee  shore  below  the  beacon  that  the  more  brilliant 
light  was  required. 

When  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  made  their  historic  trek  to  the 
United  States,  they  took  Old  World  ideas  with  them.  The 
first  light  provided  on  the  North  American  continent  was 
at  Point  Allerton,  the  most  prominent  headland  near  the 
entrance  to  Boston  Harbour,  where  400  boatloads  of  stone 
were  devoted  to  the  erection  of  a  tower  capped  with  a  large 
basket  of  iron  in  which  "  fier-bales  of  pitch  and  ocum  " 
were  burned.  This  beacon  served  the  purpose  of  guiding 
navigators  into  and  out  of  Boston  Harbour  for  several 
years. 

When,  however,  the  shortcomings  of  the  exposed  fire 
were  realized,  attempts  were  made  to  evolve  a  lighting 
system,  which  does  in  reality  constitute  the  foundation  of 
modern  practice.  But  the  beacon  fire  held  its  own  for  many 
years  after  the  new  principle  came  into  vogue,  the  last  coal 


Photo  by  fierviission  of  Messrs.  Bulhvajit  &■  Co.,  TJd. 
HOW   THE    BEACH Y    HEAD    LIGHTHOUSE   WAS   BUILT. 

To  facilitate  erection  a  cableway  was  stretched  between  the  top  of  Beachy  Head  and  a  staging  placed 
beside  the  site  of  the  tower  in  the  water.     A  stone  is  being  sent  down. 


Plioto  by  permission  of  Messrs.  BuUivant  &■  Co.,  Lid. 

WORKMEN    RETURNING   BY   THE   AERIAL   CABLEWAY  TO   THE   TOP   OF 
BEACHY    HEAD. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  LIGHTHOUSE  7 

fire  in  England  being  the  Flat  Holme  Light,  in  the  Bristol 
Channel,  which  was  not  superseded  until  1822. 

In  Scotland  the  coal  fire  survived  until  1816,  one  of  the 
most  important  of  these  beacons  being  that  on  the  Isle  of 
May,  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  which  fulfilled  its  function  for 
181  years.  This  was  a  lofty  tower,  erected  in  1636,  on  which 
a  primitive  type  of  pulley  was  installed  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  the  fuel  to  the  level  of  the  brazier,  while  three  men 
were  deputed  to  the  task  of  stoking  the  fire.  It  was  one 
of  the  private  erections,  and  the  owner  of  the  Isle  of  May, 
the  Duke  of  Portland,  in  return  for  maintaining  the  light, 
was  allowed  to  exact  a  toll  from  passing  vessels.  When 
the  welfare  of  the  Scottish  aids  to  navigation  was  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  Commissioners  of  Northern  Light- 
houses, this  body,  realizing  the  importance  of  the  position, 
wished  to  erect  upon  the  island  a  commanding  lighthouse 
illuminated  with  oil  lamps  ;  but  it  was  necessary  first  to 
buy  out  the  owner's  rights,  and  an  Act  of  Parliament  was 
passed  authorizing  this  action,  together  with  the  purchase 
of  the  island  and  the  right  to  levy  tolls,  at  an  expenditure 
of  £60,000,  or  $300,000.  In  1816  the  coal  fire  was  finally 
extinguished. 

The  English  lights  are  maintained  by  the  Brethren  of 
Trinity  House,  and  their  cost  is  defrayed  by  passing 
shipping.  This  corporation  received  its  first  charter  during 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Trinity  House,  as  it  is  called 
colloquially,  also  possesses  certain  powers  over  the  Com- 
missioners of  Northern  Lights  and  the  Commissioners  of 
Irish  Lights,  and  is  itself  under  the  sway,  in  regard  to  certain 
powers,  such  as  the  levy  of  light  dues,  of  the  Board  of 
Trade.  This  system  of  compelling  shipowners  to  maintain 
the  coast  lights  is  somewhat  anomalous  ;  it  possesses  many 
drawbacks,  and  has  provoked  quaint  situations  at  times. 
Thus,  when  the  Mohegan  and  the  Paris  were  wrecked  on 
the  Manacles  within  the  space  of  a  few  months,  the  outcry 
for  better  lighting  of  this  part  of  the  Devon  and  Cornish 
coasts  was  loud  and  bitter.  The  shipowners  clamoured  for 
more  protection,  but  at  the  same  time,  knowing  that  they 


8  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

would  have  to  foot  the  bill,  maintained  that  further  lighting 
was  unnecessary. 

The  British  Isles  might  very  well  emulate  the  example 
of  the  United  States,  France,  Canada,  and  other  countries, 
which  regard  coast  lighting  as  a  work  of  humanity,  for  the 
benefit  of  one  and  all,  and  so  defray  the  cost  out  of  the 
Government  revenues.  Some  years  ago,  when  an  Inter- 
national Conference  was  held  to  discuss  this  question,  some 
of  the  representatives  suggested  that  those  nations  which 
give  their  lighthouse  services  free  to  the  world  should  dis- 
tinguish against  British  shipping,  and  levy  light-dues 
upon  British  ships,  with  a  view  to  compelling  the  abolition 
of  the  tax  upon  foreign  vessels  visiting  British  ports.  For- 
tunately, the  threat  was  not  carried  into  execution. 

The  design  and  construction  of  lighthouses  have  developed 
into  a  highly  specialized  branch  of  engineering.  Among 
the  many  illustrious  names  associated  with  this  phase  of 
enterprise — de  Foix,  Rudyerd,  Smeaton,  Walker,  Doug- 
lass, Alexander,  and  Ribiere^ — the  Stevenson  family  stands 
pre-eminent.  Ever  since  the  maintenance  of  the  Scottish 
coast  lights  was  handed  over  to  the  Northern  Commissioners, 
the  engineering  chair  has  remained  in  the  hands  of  this 
family,  the  names  of  whose  members  are  identified  with 
many  lights  that  have  become  famous  throughout  the  world 
for  their  daring  nature,  design,  and  construction.  More- 
over, the  family's  contributions  to  the  science  of  this  privi- 
leged craft  have  been  of  incalculable  value.  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson  has  written  a  fascinating  story  around  their 
exploits  in  "  A  Family  of  Engineers." 

It  was  at  first  intended  that  the  great  author  himself 
should  follow  in  the  footsteps  of  his  forbears.  He  completed 
his  apprenticeship  at  the  drawing-table  under  his  father 
and  uncle,  and  became  initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  the 
craft.  At  the  outset  he  apparently  had  visions  of  becoming 
numbered  among  those  of  his  family  who  had  achieved 
eminence  in  lighthouse  construction,  and  he  often  accom- 
panied his  father  or  uncle  on  their  periodical  rounds  of 
inspection.    Probably  the  rough  and  tumble  life  in  a  small 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  LIGHTHOUSE  9 

tender  among  the  wild  seas  of  Scotland,  the  excitement  of 
landing  upon  dangerous  rocks,  the  aspect  of  loneliness  re- 
vealed by  acquaintance  with  the  keepers,  and  the  following 
of  the  growth  of  a  new  tower  from  its  foundations,  stirred 
his  imagination,  so  that  the  dormant  literary  instinct,  which, 
like  that  of  engineering,  he  had  inherited,  became  fired. 
Mathematical  formulae,  figures,  and  drawings,  wrestled  for 
a  time  with  imagination  and  letters,  but  the  call  of  the 
literary  heritage  proved  triumphant,  and,  unlike  his  grand- 
father, who  combined  literature  with  lighthouse  construc- 
tion, and  who,  indeed,  was  a  polished  author,  as  his  stirring 
story  of  the  "  Bell  Rock  Lighthouse  "  conclusively  shows, 
he  finally  threw  in  his  lot  with  letters. 

The  fact  that  for  more  than  a  century  one  family  has 
held  the  exacting  position  of  chief  engineer  to  the  Northern 
Commissioners,  and  has  been  responsible  for  the  lights 
around  Scotland's  troublous  coasts,  is  unique  in  the  annals 
of  engineering.  Each  generation  has  been  identified  with 
some  notable  enterprise  in  this  field.  Thomas  Smith,  the 
father-in-law  of  Robert  Stevenson,  founded  the  service, 
and  was  the  first  engineer  to  the  Commissioners.  Robert 
Stevenson  assumed  his  mantle  and  produced  the  "  Bell 
Rock."  His  son,  Alan  Stevenson,  was  the  creator  of  the 
"  Skerryvore."  The  next  in  the  chain,  David  Stevenson, 
built  the  "  North  Unst."  David  and  Thomas  Stevenson, 
who  followed,  contributed  the  "  Dhu-Heartach  "  and  the 
"  Chicken  Rock "  lights ;  while  the  present  generation, 
David  and  Charles,  have  erected  such  works  as  "  Rattray 
Briggs,"  "  Sule  Skerry,"  and  the  Flannen  Islands  light- 
houses. In  addition,  the  latter  have  developed  lighthouse 
engineering  in  many  novel  directions,  such  as  the  un- 
attended Otter  Rock  lightship,  the  unattended  Guernsey 
lighthouse,  and  the  automatic,  acetylene,  fog-signal  gun, 
which  are  described  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 

Some  forty  years  ago  the  Stevensons  also  drew  up  the 
scheme  and  designed  the  first  lighthouses  for  guarding  the 
coasts  of  Japan,  The  essential  optical  apparatus  and  other 
fittings  were  built  and  temporarily  erected  in  England,  then 


lo  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

dismantled  and  shipped  to  the  East,  to  be  set  up  in  their 
designed  places.  The  Japanese  did  not  fail  to  manifest 
their  characteristic  trait  in  connection  with  lighthouses  as 
with  other  branches  of  engineering.  The  structures  pro- 
duced by  the  Scottish  engineers  fulfilled  the  requirements 
so  perfectly,  and  were  such  excellent  models,  as  to  be  con- 
sidered a  first-class  foundation  for  the  Japanese  lighthouse 
service.  The  native  engineers  took  these  lights  as  their 
pattern,  and,  unaided,  extended  their  coast  lighting  system 
upon  the  lines  laid  down  by  the  Stevensons.  Since  that 
date  Japan  has  never  gone  outside  her  own  borders  for  assist- 
ance in  lighthouse  engineering. 


CHAPTER  II 

BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE 

Obviously,  the  task  of  erecting  a  lighthouse  varies  con- 
siderably with  the  situation.  On  the  mainland  construc- 
tion is  straightforward,  and  offers  little  more  difficulty  than 
the  building  of  a  house.  The  work  assumes  its  most 
romantic  and  fascinating  form  when  it  is  associated  with 
a  small  rocky  islet  out  to  sea,  such  as  the  Eddystone, 
Skerry vore,  or  Minot's  Ledge  ;  or  with  a  treacherous,  ex- 
posed stretch  of  sand,  such  as  that  upon  which  the  Rother- 
sand  light  is  raised.  Under  such  conditions  the  operation 
is  truly  herculean,  and  the  ingenuity  and  resource  of  the 
engineer  are  taxed  to  a  superlative  degree  ;  then  he  is 
pitted  against  Nature  in  her  most  awful  guise.  Wind  and 
wave,  moreover,  are  such  formidable  and  relentless  antag- 
onists that  for  the  most  momentary  failure  of  vigilance 
and  care  the  full  penalty  is  exacted.  Then  there  are  the 
fiercely  scurrying  currents,  tides,  breakers,  and  surf,  against 
which  battle  must  be  waged,  with  the  odds  so  overwhelm- 
ingly ranged  against  frail  human  endeavour  that  advance 
can  only  be  made  by  inches.  The  lighthouse  engineer  must 
possess  the  patience  of  a  Job,  the  tenacity  of  a  limpet,  a 
determination  which  cannot  be  measured,  and  a  persever- 
ance which  defies  galling  delays  and  repeated  rebuffs. 
Perils  of  an  extreme  character  beset  him  on  every  hand  ; 
thrilling  escape  and  sensational  incident  are  inseparable 
from  his  calling. 

The  first  step  is  the  survey  of  the  site,  the  determination  of 
the  character  of  the  rock  and  of  its  general  configuration, 
and  the  takings  of  levels  and  measurements  for  the  founda- 
tions. When  the  rugged  hump  is  only  a  few  feet  in  diameter 
little  latitude  is  afforded  the  engineer  for  selection,  but  in 

IX 


12  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

instances  where  the  islet  is  of  appreciable  area  some  little 
time  may  be  occupied  in  deciding  just  where  the  structure 
shall  be  placed.  It  seems  a  simple  enough  task  to  determine  ; 
one  capable  of  solution  within  a  few  minutes,  and  so  for 
the  most  part  it  is — not  from  choice,  but  necessity — when 
once  the  surface  of  the  rock  is  gained.  The  paramount 
difficulty  is  to  secure  a  landing  upon  the  site.  The  islet  is 
certain  to  be  the  centre  of  madly  surging  currents,  eddies, 
and  surf,  demanding  wary  approach  in  a  small  boat,  while 
the  search  for  a  suitable  point  upon  which  to  plant  a  foot 
is  invariably  perplexing.  Somehow,  the  majority  of  these 
bleak,  wave-swept  rocks  have  only  one  little  place  where 
a  landing  may  be  made,  and  that  only  at  certain  infrequent 
periods,  the  discovery  of  which  in  the  first  instance  often 
taxes  the  engineer  sorely. 

Often  weeks  will  be  expended  in  reconnoitring  the  position, 
awaiting  a  favourable  wind  and  a  placid  sea.  Time  to  the 
surveyor  must  be  no  object.  He  is  the  sport  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  he  must  curb  his  impatience.  To  do  otherwise 
is  to  court  disaster.  The  actual  operations  on  the  rock 
may  only  occupy  twenty  minutes  or  so,  but  the  task  of 
landing  is  equalled  by  that  of  getting  off  again — the  latter 
frequently  a  more  hazardous  job  than  the  former. 

The  west  coast  of  Scotland  is  dreaded,  if  such  a  term  may 
be  used,  by  the  engineer,  because  the  survey  inevitably 
is  associated  with  bitter  disappointments  and  maddening 
delays  owing  to  the  caprices  of  the  ocean.  This  is  not 
surprising  when  it  is  remembered  that  this  coastline  is  of 
a  cruel,  forbidding  character  and  is  exposed  to  the  full 
reach  of  the  Atlantic,  with  its  puzzling  swell  and  vicious 
currents.  The  same  applies  to  the  west  coast  of  Ireland 
and  the  open  parts  of  the  South  of  England.  The  Casquets, 
off  the  coast  of  Alderney,  are  particularly  difficult  of  ap- 
proach, as  they  are  washed  on  all  sides  by  wild  races  of 
water.  There  is  only  one  little  cove  where  a  landing  may 
be  effected  by  stepping  directly  from  a  boat,  and  this  place 
can  be  approached  only  in  the  calmest  weather  and  when 
the  wind  is  blowing  in  a  certain  direction.     On  one  occasion. 


BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE  13 

when  I  had  received  permission  to  visit  the  Hghthouse,  I 
frittered  away  three  weeks  in  Alderney  awaiting  a  favour- 
able opportunity  to  go  out,  and  then  gave  up  the  attempt 
in  disgust.  As  it  happened,  another  month  elapsed  before 
the  rock  was  approachable  to  make  the  relief. 

When  the  United  States  Lighthouse  Board  sanctioned 
the  construction  of  the  Tillamook  lighthouse  on  the  rock 
of  that  name,  off  the  Oregon  coast,  the  engineer  in  charge 
of  the  survey  was  compelled  to  wait  six  months  before  he 
could  venture  to  approach  the  island.  In  this  instance, 
however,  his  time  was  not  wasted  entirely,  as  there  were 
many  preparations  to  be  completed  on  the  mainland  to 
facilitate  construction  when  it  should  be  commenced.  Early 
in  June,  1879,  the  weather  moderated,  and  the  Pacific 
assumed  an  aspect  in  keeping  with  its  name.  Stimulated 
by  the  prospect  of  carrying  out  his  appointed  task,  the 
engineer  pushed  off  in  a  boat,  but,  to  his  chagrin,  when  he 
drew  near  the  rock  he  found  the  prospects  of  landing  to  be 
hopeless.  He  cruised  about,  reconnoitring  generally  from 
the  water,  and  then  returned  to  shore  somewhat  disgusted. 

A  fortnight  later  he  was  instructed  to  take  up  his  position 
at  Astoria,  to  keep  a  sharp  eye  on  the  weather,  to  take  the 
first  chance  that  presented  itself  of  gaining  the  rock,  and 
not  to  return  to  headquarters  until  he  had  made  a  landing. 
He  fretted  and  fumed  day  after  day,  and  at  last  pushed  off 
with  a  gang  of  men  when  the  sea  where  it  lapped  the  beach 
of  the  mainland  was  as  smooth  as  a  lake  ;  but  as  they 
drew  near  the  Tillamook  it  was  the  same  old  story.  A 
treacherous  swell  was  running,  the  waves  were  curling 
wickedly  and  fussily  around  the  islet ;  but  the  engineer 
had  made  up  his  mind  that  he  would  be  balked  no  longer, 
so  the  boat  was  pulled  in  warily,  in  the  face  of  terrible  risk, 
and  two  sailors  were  ordered  to  get  ashore  by  hook  or  by 
crook.  The  boat  swung  to  and  fro  in  the  swell.  Time  after 
time  it  was  carried  forward  to  the  landing  spot  by  a  wave, 
and  then,  just  as  the  men  were  ready  to  jump,  the  receding 
waters  would  throw  it  back.  At  last,  as  it  swung  by  the 
spot,  the  two  men  gave  a  leap  and  landed  safely.    The  next 


14  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

proceeding  was  to  pass  instruments  ashore,  but  the  swell, 
as  if  incensed  at  the  partial  success  achieved,  grew  more 
boisterous,  and  the  boat  had  to  back  away  from  the  rock. 
The  men  who  had  landed,  and  who  had  not  moved  a  yard 
from  the  spot  they  had  gained,  became  frightened  at  this 
manoeuvre,  and,  fearing  that  they  might  be  marooned, 
jumped  into  the  sea,  and  were  pulled  into  the  boat  by  means 
of  their  life-lines,  without  having  accomplished  a  stroke. 

The  engineer  chafed  under  these  disappointments,  and 
himself  determined  to  incur  the  risk  of  landing  at  all 
hazards.  With  his  tape-line  in  his  pocket,  he  set  out  once 
more  a  few  days  later,  and  in  a  surf-boat  pulled  steadily 
into  the  froth  and  foam  around  the  rock ;  while  the  men 
sawed  to  and  fro  the  landing-place,  he  crouched  in  the 
bow,  watching  his  opportunity.  Presently,  the  boat  steady- 
ing itself  for  a  moment,  he  made  a  spring  and  reached  the 
rock.  He  could  not  get  his  instruments  ashore,  so  without 
loss  of  time  he  ran  his  line  from  point  to  point  as  rapidly 
as  he  could,  jotted  down  hurried  notes,  and,  when  the  swell 
was  growing  restive  again,  hailed  the  boat,  and  at  a  favour- 
able moment,  as  it  manoeuvred  round,  jumped  into  it. 

The  details  he  had  secured,  though  hastily  prepared, 
were  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  His  report  was  considered 
and  the  character  of  the  beacon  decided.  There  was  some 
discussion  as  to  the  most  favourable  situation  for  the  light 
upon  the  rock,  so  a  more  detailed  survey  was  demanded  to 
settle  this  problem.  This  task  was  entrusted  to  an  English- 
man, Mr.  John  R.  Trewavas,  who  was  familiar  with  work 
under  such  conditions.  He  was  a  master-mason  of  Portland 
and  had  been  engaged  upon  the  construction  of  the  Wolf 
Rock,  one  of  the  most  notable  and  difficult  works  of  its  kind 
in  the  history  of  lighthouse  engineering. 

He  pushed  off  to  the  rock  on  September  i8,  1879,  in  a 
surf-boat,  only  to  find  the  usual  state  of  things  prevailing. 
The  boat  was  run  in,  and,  emulating  the  first  engineer's  feat, 
he  cleared  the  water  and  landed  on  the  steep,  rocky  slope ; 
but  it  was  wet  and  slippery,  and  his  feet  played  him  false. 
He  stumbled,  and  stooped  to  regain  his  balance,  but  just 


immi 


THE   SAXGAXEB    REEF    LIGHTHOUSE    IN   THE    RED   SEA. 

It  indicates  a  treacherous  coral  reef,  703  miles  from  Suez.       It  is  an  iron  tower  180  feet  high, 
with  a  white  flashing  light  having  a  range  of  19  miles. 


'y.^i  . 

O 

^          .--,     ' . 

(/) 

o 

X 

^•r/i''    W- 

m-% 

J 

N 

^-<  - 

'T, 

7     \ 

K 

y 

r^ 

i 

-< 

?^     H 


BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE  15 

then  a  roller  curled  in,  snatched  him  up  and  threw  him  into 
the  whirlpool  of  currents.  Life-lines  were  thrown,  and  the 
surf -boat  struggled  desperately  to  get  near  him,  but  he  was 
dragged  down  by  the  undertow  and  never  seen  again. 
This  fatality  scared  his  companions,  who  returned  hastily 
to  the  mainland.  The  recital  of  their  dramatic  story  stirred 
the  public  to  such  a  pitch  that  the  authorities  were  frantic- 
ally urged  to  abandon  the  project  of  lighting  the  Tillamook. 

Mr.  David  Stevenson  related  to  me  an  exciting  twenty 
minutes  which  befell  him  and  his  brother  while  surveying 
a  rock  off  the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  They  had  been 
waiting  patiently  for  a  favourable  moment  to  effect  a  land- 
ing, and  when  at  last  it  appeared  they  drew  in  and  clambered 
ashore.  But  they  could  not  advance  another  inch.  The 
rock  was  jagged  and  broken,  while  its  surface  was  as  slippery 
as  ice  owing  to  a  thick  covering  of  slimy  seaweed  whereon 
boots  could  not  possibly  secure  a  hold.  Having  gained  the 
rock  with  so  much  difficulty,  they  were  not  going  away 
empty-handed.  As  they  could  not  stand  in  their  boots, 
they  promptly  removed  them,  and,  taking  their  line  and 
levels,  picked  their  way  gingerly  over  the  jagged,  slippery 
surface  in  their  stockinged  feet.  Movement  certainly  was 
exceedingly  uncomfortable,  because  their  toes  displayed 
an  uncanny  readiness  to  find  every  needle-point  on  the 
islet ;  but  the  wool  of  their  footwear  enabled  them  to  obtain 
a  firm  grip  upon  the  treacherous  surface,  without  the  risk 
of  being  upset  and  having  a  limb  battered  or  broken  in  the 
process.  Twenty  minutes  were  spent  in  making  investiga- 
tions under  these  disconcerting  conditions,  but  the  time 
was  adequate  to  provide  all  the  details  required.  When 
they  had  completed  the  survey  and  had  regained  their 
boat — a  matter  of  no  little  difficulty  in  the  circumstances — 
their  feet  bore  sad  traces  of  the  ordeal  through  which  they 
had  passed.  However,  their  one  concern  was  the  completion 
of  the  survey ;  that  had  been  made  successfully  and  was 
well  worth  the  toll  exacted  in  the  form  of  physical  discomfort. 

As  a  rule,  on  a  wave-swept  rock  which  only  shows  itself 
at  short  intervals  during  the  day,  the  preparation  of  the 


i6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

foundations  is  not  an  exacting  task.  A  little  paring  with 
chisels  and  dynamite  may  be  requisite  here  and  there,  but 
invariably  the  engineer  takes  the  exposed  surface  as  the 
basis  for  his  work.  The  sea  has  eaten  away  all  the  soft, 
friable  material  in  its  ceaseless  erosion,  leaving  an  excellent 
foundation  to  which  the  superstructure  can  be  keyed  to 
become  as  solid  as  the  rock  itself. 

When  the  beacon  is  to  be  erected  upon  a  sandy  bottom, 
the  engineer's  work  becomes  more  baffling,  as  he  is  compelled 
to  carry  his  underwater  work  down  to  a  point  where  a 
stable  foundation  may  be  secured.  When  the  Leasowe 
lighthouse  was  built  on  the  sandy  Wirral  shore,  the 
builders  were  puzzled  by  the  lack  of  a  suitable  foundation 
for  the  masonry  tower.  An  ingenious  way  out  of  the  diffi- 
culty was  effected.  In  the  vicinity  an  incoming  ship,  laden 
with  a  cargo  of  cotton,  had  gone  ashore  and  had  become  a 
total  wreck.  The  cotton  was  useless  for  its  intended  pur- 
pose, so  the  bales  were  salvaged  and  dumped  into  the  sand 
at  the  point  where  the  lighthouse  was  to  be  erected.  The 
fleecy  mass  settled  into  the  sand,  and  under  compression 
became  as  solid  as  a  rock,  while  its  permanency  was  assured 
by  its  complete  submersion.  The  stability  of  this  strange 
foundation  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  tower 
erected  thereon  stood,  and  shed  its  welcome  light  regularly 
every  night,  for  about  a  century  and  a  half,  only  being 
extinguished  two  or  three  years  ago  as  it  was  no  longer 
required. 

In  the  Old  World,  and,  indeed,  in  the  great  majority  of 
instances,  the  lighthouse  is  what  is  described  as  a  "  mono- 
lithic structure,"  being  built  of  courses  of  masonry,  the 
blocks  of  which  are  dovetailed  together  not  only  laterally, 
but  also  perpendicularly,  so  that,  when  completed,  the 
tower  comprises  a  solid  mass  with  each  stone  jointed  to  its 
fellow  on  four  or  five  of  its  six  sides.  This  method  was  first 
tried  in  connection  with  the  Hanois  lighthouse,  off  the 
Guernsey  coast,  and  was  found  so  successful  that  it  has 
been  adopted  universally  in  all  lighthouses  which  are  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  waves. 


BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE  17 

The  upper  face  and  one  end  of  each  block  are  provided 
with  projections,  while  the  lower  face  and  the  other  end 
are  given  indentations.  Thus,  when  the  block  is  set  in 
position,  the  projections  fit  into  corresponding  indentations 
in  the  adjacent  blocks,  while  the  indentations  receive  the 
projections  from  two  other  neighbouring  pieces.  The  whole 
is  locked  together  by  the  aid  of  hydraulic  cement.  Conse- 
quently the  waves,  or  any  other  agency,  cannot  possibly 
dislodge  a  stone  without  breaking  the  dovetails  or  smashing 
the  stone  itself.  For  the  bottom  layer,  of  course,  the  surface 
of  the  rock  is  pared  away  sufficiently  to  receive  the  stone, 
which  is  bedded  in  cement  adhering  to  both  the  rock  and 
the  superimposed  block.  A  hole  is  then  drilled  through  the 
latter  deep  into  the  rock  beneath,  into  which  a  steel  rod  or 
bolt  is  driven  well  home,  and  the  hole  is  sealed  up  with 
cement  forced  in  under  such  pressure  as  to  penetrate  every 
interstice  and  crevice. 

The  iron  supports  constitute  the  roots,  as  it  were,  of  the 
tower,  penetrating  deep  into  the  heart  of  the  rock  to  secure 
a  firm  grip,  while  the  tower  itself  resembles,  in  its  general 
appearance,  a  symmetrical  tree  trunk,  this  form  offering 
the  minimum  of  resistance  to  the  waves.  The  lower  part 
of  the  tower  is  made  completely  solid  by  the  dovetailing  of 
the  integral  blocks,  and  is  cylindrical  in  shape  up  to  a  certain 
predetermined  level  which  varies  according  to  the  surround- 
ing conditions  and  the  situation  of  the  light.  Some  years 
ago  the  lighthouse  assumed  its  trunk-like  shape  at  the  bottom 
course,  rising  in  a  graceful  concave  curve  to  the  lantern ; 
but  this  method  has  been  abandoned,  inasmuch  as,  owing 
to  the  decreasing  diameter  of  the  tower  as  it  rose  course  by 
course  above  its  foundations,  the  lowest  outer  rings  of  masonry 
did  not  have  to  withstand  any  of  the  superimposed  weight, 
which  naturally  bears  in  a  vertical  line.  By  carrying  the 
lower  part  to  a  certain  height  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  and 
then  commencing  the  concave  curve  of  the  tower,  the 
pressure  of  the  latter  is  imposed  equally  upon  the  whole  of 
its  foundations.  The  latter  may  be  stepped — i.e.,  one  tier 
of  stones  may  project  a  little  beyond  that  of  the  one  im- 


1 8  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

mediately  above — but  this  arrangement  is  adopted  in  order 
to  break  the  smashing  force  of  the  waves. 

The  conditions  attending  the  actual  building  operations 
upon  the  rock,  which  may  be  accessible  only  for  an  hour 
or  two  per  day  in  calm  weather,  prevent  the  blocks  of 
granite  being  shaped  and  trimmed  upon  the  site.  Accord- 
ingly, the  lighthouse  in  the  first  place  is  erected  piecemeal 
on  shore.  A  horizontal  course  of  stones  is  laid  to  see 
that  each  dovetail  fits  tightly  and  dead  true.  The  next 
course  is  laid  upon  this,  and  so  on  for  perhaps  eight 
or  ten  courses,  the  trimming  and  finicking  being  accom- 
plished as  the  work  proceeds.  Each  projection  has  to  be 
only  just  big  enough  to  enter  its  relative  indentation,  while 
the  latter  must  be  exactly  of  the  requisite  dimensions  to 
receive  the  projection,  and  no  more.  Each  stone  is  then 
given  an  identification  mark,  so  that  the  masons  on  the  rock 
may  perceive  at  a  glance  its  precise  position  in  a  course, 
and  to  what  ring  of  stones  it  belongs.  Therefore  the  mason 
at  the  site  has  no  anxiety  about  a  stone  fitting  accurately  ; 
he  has  merely  to  set  it  in  position  upon  its  bed  of  cement. 

On  shore — generally  in  the  quarry  yard' — when  a  series 
of  courses  have  been  temporarily  built  up  in  this  manner 
and  have  received  the  critical  approbation  of  the  resident 
engineer,  the  topmost  course  is  removed  and  retained,  while 
the  other  blocks  are  despatched  to  the  site.  This  topmost 
course  forms  the  bottom  ring  in  the  next  section  of  the 
lighthouse  which  is  built  up  in  the  yard,  and  the  topmost 
course  of  this  section  in  turn  is  held  to  form  the  bottom 
course  of  the  succeeding  part  of  the  tower,  and  so  on  from 
foundation  to  lantern  parapet. 

During  the  past  two  or  three  years  reinforced  concrete 
has  been  employed  to  a  certain  extent  for  lighthouse  con- 
struction, but  granite  of  the  finest  and  hardest  quality  still 
remains  the  material  par  excellence  for  towers  erected  in 
exposed,  sea-swept  positions.  The  Russian  lighthouse 
authorities  have  adopted  the  ferro-concrete  system  in  regard 
to  one  or  two  shore  lights,  especially  on  the  Black  Sea, 
while  another  fine  structure  upon  this  principle  was  built 


BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE  19 

by  the  French  Service  des  Phares  in  1905  at  the  entrance 
to  the  River  Gironde.  The  system  has  also  been  adopted 
by  the  Canadian  Hghthouse  authorities  ;  one  or  two  recent 
notable  lights  under  their  jurisdiction  have  been  constructed 
in  this  material,  although  on  somewhat  different  lines  from 
those  almost  invariably  followed,  so  far  as  the  general  design 
is  concerned. 

While  the  masonry  or  monolithic  structure  is  the  most 
durable  and  substantial  structure,  it  is  also  the  most  ex- 
pensive. In  many  parts  of  the  world,  notably  along  the 
Atlantic  coastline  of  the  United  States,  what  are  known  as 
"  screw-pile  lighthouses  "  are  used.  These  buildings  vary 
in  form,  some  resembling  a  huge  beacon,  such  as  indicates 
the  entrance  to  a  river,  while  others  convey  the  impression 
of  being  bungalows  or  pavilions  on  stilts.  The  legs  are 
stout,  cylindrical,  iron  members,  the  lower  ends  of  which  are 
shaped  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  an  auger,  whereby 
they  may  be  screwed  into  the  sea-bed — hence  the  name. 
This  system  has  been  employed  for  beacons  over  dangerous 
shoals  ;  and  while  they  are  somewhat  squat,  low-lying  lights, 
they  have  proved  to  be  highly  serviceable. 

Iron  has  been  employed  also  for  lighthouse  constructional 
work,  the  system  in  this  case  being  a  combination  of  the 
screw  pile  and  the  tower,  the  latter,  extending  from  a  plat- 
form whereon  the  living-quarters  are  placed  and  mounted 
clear  of  the  water,  on  piles,  being  a  huge  cylindrical  pipe 
crowned  by  the  lantern.  One  of  the  most  interesting  and 
novel  of  these  iron  lighthouses  is  the  Hunting  Island  tower 
off  the  coast  of  South  Carolina.  In  general  design  it  re- 
sembles the  ordinary  lighthouse  wrought  in  masonry,  and 
it  is  1214  feet  in  height  from  the  ground  to  the  focal  plane. 
It  is  built  of  iron  throughout,  the  shell  being  in  the  form  of 
panels,  each  of  which  weighs  1,200  pounds. 

This  type  of  tower  was  selected  owing  to  the  severe 
erosion  of  the  sea  at  the  point  where  it  is  placed.  When  it 
was  erected  in  1875,  at  a  cost  of  £20,400,  or  $102,000,  it 
was  planted  a  quarter  of  a  mile  back  from  the  sea.  This 
action  was  severely  criticized  at  the  time,  it  being  main- 


20  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

tained  that  the  Hght  was  set  too  far  from  the  water's  edge 
to  be  of  practical  value  ;  but  the  hungry  ocean  disappointed 
the  critics,  because  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  inter- 
vening strip  of  shore  disappeared,  and  the  necessity  of 
demolishing  the  light  and  re-erecting  it  farther  inland  arose. 
On  this  occasion  the  engineers  determined  to  postpone  a 
second  removal  for  some  time.  The  tower  was  re-erected 
at  a  point  one  and  a  quarter  miles  inland,  and  the  sum  of 
£10,200,  or  $51,000,  was  expended  upon  the  undertaking. 
The  iron  system,  which  was  adopted,  proved  its  value  in 
this  work  of  removal  piece  by  piece,  because,  had  the  tower 
been  carried  out  in  masonry,  it  would  have  been  cheaper  to 
set  up  a  new  light,  as  was  done  at  Cape  Henry, 

Some  of  the  American  coast  lights  are  of  the  most  primi- 
tive and  odd-looking  character,  comprising  merely  a  lofty 
skeleton  of  ironwork.  The  lamp  is  a  head-light,  such  as  is 
carried  by  railway  engines,  fitted  with  a  parabolic  reflector. 
Every  morning  the  lamp  is  lowered,  cleaned,  and  stored  in 
a  shack  at  the  foot  of  the  pyramid,  to  be  lighted  and  hauled 
into  position  at  dusk.  This  is  the  most  economical  form 
of  lighthouse  which  has  been  devised,  the  total  cost  of  the 
installation  being  only  about  £2,500,  or  $12,500,  while  the 
maintenance  charges  are  equally  low.  Lights  of  this  de- 
scription are  employed  for  the  most  part  in  connection  with 
the  lighting  of  waterways,  constituting  what  is  known  as 
the  "  back-light  "  in  a  range  or  group  of  lights  studded 
along  the  river  to  guide  the  navigator  through  its  twists 
and  shallows,  instead  of  buoying  of  the  channel. 

The  task  of  constructing  a  sea-rock  lighthouse  is  as  tedious 
and  protracted  an  enterprise  as  one  could  conceive,  because 
the  engineer  and  his  workmen  are  entirely  at  the  mercy  of 
the  weather.  Each  great  work  has  bristled  with  its  par- 
ticular difficulties  ;  each  has  presented  its  individual  problems 
for  solution.  Few  modern  lighthouses,  however,  have  so 
baffled  the  engineer  and  have  occupied  such  a  number  of 
years  in  completion,  as  the  Ar-men  light  off  Cape  Finisterre. 
This  tower  was  commenced  in  1867,  but  so  great  and  so 
many  were  the  difficulties  involved  in  its  erection  that  the 


Fig.  I. — Sectional  Diagram  of  the  Ar-men  Lighthouse, 
SHOWING  Yearly  Progress  in  Construction. 

It  guards  the  "  Bay  of  the  Dead,"  off  Cape  Finisterre.     Commenced  in 
1867,  it  was  not  finished  until  188 1. 


22  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

light  was  not  first  thrown  over  the  Atlantic  from  its  lantern 
until  1881. 

This  light  is  situated  at  one  of  the  most  dreaded  parts 
of  a  sinister  coast.  At  this  spot  a  number  of  granite  points 
thrust  themselves  at  times  above  the  water  in  an  indenta- 
tion which  has  received  the  lugubrious  name  Bay  of  the 
Dead.  The  title  is  well  deserved,  for  it  is  impossible  to 
say  how  many  ships  have  gone  down  through  fouling  these 
greedy  fangs,  or  how  many  lives  have  been  lost  in  its 
vicinity.  The  waters  around  the  spot  are  a  seething  race 
of  currents,  eddies,  and  whirlpools.  It  is  an  ocean  grave- 
yard in  very  truth,  and  although  mariners  are  only  too 
cognizant  of  its  terrible  character,  and  endeavour  to  give 
this  corner  of  the  European  mainland  a  wide  birth,  yet 
storms  and  fogs  upset  the  calculations  of  the  most  careful 
navigators. 

As  the  streams  of  traffic  across  the  Bay  of  Biscay  grew 
denser  and  denser,  it  became  imperative  to  provide  a 
guardian  light  at  this  spot,  and  the  engineers  embarked 
upon  their  task.  They  knew  well  that  they  were  faced 
with  a  daring  and  trying  enterprise,  and  weeks  were  spent 
in  these  troubled  waters  seeking  for  the  most  favourable 
site.  As  a  result  of  their  elaborate  surveys,  they  decided 
that  the  rock  of  Ar-men  offered  the  only  suitable  situation  ; 
but  what  a  precarious  foundation  upon  which  to  lift  a  massive 
masonry  tower  !  The  hump  is  only  25  feet  wide  by  50  feet 
in  length  ;  no  more  than  three  little  pinnacles  projected 
above  the  sea-level,  and  at  low-tide  less  than  5  feet  of  the 
tough  gneiss  were  exposed.  Nor  was  this  the  most  adverse 
feature.  The  rock  is  in  the  centre  of  the  bad  waters,  and 
is  swept  from  end  to  end,  under  all  conditions  of  weather, 
by  the  furious  swell.  Some  idea  of  the  prospect  confronting 
the  engineers  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  a  whole 
year  was  spent  in  the  effort  to  make  one  landing  to  take 
levels. 

When  construction  was  taken  in  hand  the  outlook  was 
even  more  appalling.  It  was  as  if  the  sea  recognized  that 
its  day  of  plunder  was  to  draw  to  a  close.     The  v/orkmen 


By  permission  P/  Messrs.  Bullivaiit  &  Co.,  Ltd. 

SETTING   THE    LAST   STONE   OF   THE    BEACHY   HEAD   LIGHTHOUSE. 


BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE  23 

were  brought,  with  all  materials  and  appliances,  to  the 
nearest  strategical  point  on  the  mainland,  where  a  depot 
was  established.  Yet  in  the  course  of  two  years  the  work- 
men, although  they  strove  day  after  day  to  land  upon  the 
rock,  only  succeeded  twenty-three  times,  while  during  this 
period  only  twenty-six  hours'  work  was  accomplished  !  It 
is  not  surprising  that,  when  the  men  did  land,  they  toiled 
like  Trojans  to  make  the  most  of  the  brief  interval.  The 
sum  of  their  work  in  this  time  was  the  planting  of  the 
lighthouse's  roots  in  the  form  of  fifty-five  circular  bars, 
each  2  inches  in  diameter  and  spaced  3J  feet  apart  at  a 
depth  of  about  12  inches  in  the  granite  mass.  By  the  end 
of  1870  the  cylindrical  foundation  had  crept  a  few  feet  above 
the  highest  projection  ;  this  plinth  was  24  feet  in  diameter, 
18  feet  in  height,  and  was  solid  throughout.  A  greater 
diameter  was  impossible  as  the  wall  was  brought  almost 
to  the  edge  of  the  rock. 

By  dint  of  great  effort  this  part  of  the  work  was  completed 
by  the  end  of  1874,  which  year,  by  the  way,  showed  the 
greatest  advance  that  had  been  attained  in  a  single  twelve- 
month. As  much  of  the  foundations  was  completed  in 
this  year  as  had  been  achieved  during  the  three  previous 
years.  Although  the  heavy  gales  pounded  the  structure 
mercilessly,  so  well  was  the  masonry  laid  that  it  offered 
quite  effective  resistance.  Upon  this  plinth  was  placed  the 
base  of  the  tower.  This  likewise  is  24  feet  in  diameter, 
and  about  10  feet  in  height.  It  is  also  of  massive  construc- 
tion, being  solid  except  for  a  central  cylindrical  space 
which  is  capable  of  receiving  some  5  tons  of  coal. 

The  base  was  completed  in  a  single  year,  and  in  1876  the 
erection  of  the  tower  proper  was  commenced,  together  with 
the  completion  of  the  approaching  stairway  leading  from 
the  water-level  to  the  base  of  the  structure.  The  latter, 
divided  into  seven  stories,  rises  in  the  form  of  a  slender 
cone,  tapering  from  a  diameter  of  21 1  feet  at  the  bottom 
to  i6|  feet  at  the  top  beneath  the  lantern.  Some  idea  of 
the  massive  character  of  the  work  which  was  demanded  in 
order  to  resist  the  intense  fury  of  the  waves  may  be  realized 


24  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

when  it  is  mentioned  that  the  wall  at  the  first  and  second 
floors  is  5|  feet  in  thickness,  leaving  a  diameter  of  lo  feet 
for  the  apartment  on  the  first  floor,  which  is  devoted  to  the 
storage  of  water,  and  of  7  feet  for  that  on  the  second  floor, 
which  contains  the  oil  reservoirs  for  the  lamps.  The  living- 
rooms  have  a  diameter  of  11  feet,  this  increased  space  being 
obtained  by  reducing  the  thickness  of  the  wall  to  2|  feet. 
The  erection  of  the  superstructure  went  forward  steadily, 
five  years  being  occupied  in  carrying  the  masonry  from  the 
base  to  the  lantern  gallery,  so  that  in  1881  for  the  first  time 
powerful  warning  was  given  of  a  danger  dreaded,  and  often 
unavoidable,  from  the  time  when  ships  first  sailed  these  seas. 
Fifteen  years'  labour  and  peril  on  the  part  of  the  engineers 
and  their  assistants  were  crowned  with  success. 

Whereas  the  Ar-men  light  off  Cape  Finisterre  demanded 
fifteen  years  for  its  completion,  the  construction  of  the 
Beachy  Head  lighthouse  off  the  South  of  England  coast 
was  completed  within  a  few  months.  It  is  true  that  the 
conditions  were  vastly  dissimilar,  but  the  Sussex  shore  is 
exposed  to  the  full  brunt  of  the  south-westerly  and  south- 
easterly gales.  This  lighthouse  thrusts  its  slender  lines 
from  the  water,  its  foundations  being  sunk  into  the  chalk 
bed  of  the  Channel,  550  feet  from  the  base  of  the  towering 
white  cliffs,  which  constitute  a  striking  background.  This 
beacon  was  brought  into  service  in  1902,  its  construction 
having  occupied  about  two  years.  The  light  formerly  was 
placed  on  the  crown  of  the  precipice  behind,  but,  being 
then  some  285  feet  above  the  water,  was  far  from  being 
satisfactory,  as  its  rays  were  frequently  blotted  out  by  the 
ruffle  of  mist  which  gathers  around  Beachy  Head  on  the 
approach  of  evening. 

Indeed,  this  is  one  of  the  great  objections  to  placing  a 
light  upon  a  lofty  headland.  In  such  a  position  it  does  not 
serve  as  an  aid,  but  more  often  than  not  as  a  danger,  to 
navigation,  owing  to  the  light  being  invisible  at  the  time 
when  its  assistance  is  required  and  sought  most  urgently. 
Consequently  lighthouse  engineers  endeavour  to  set  their 
towers  at  such  a  level  that  the  light  is  not  raised  more  than 


BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE  25 

from  160  to  200  feet  above  the  water.  In  the  case  of 
Beachy  Head,  a  further  reason  for  a  new  structure  was  the 
disintegration  of  the  chff  upon  which  the  hght  stood,  under 
the  terrific  poundings  of  the  sea,  huge  falls  of  chalk  having 
occurred  from  time  to  time,  which  imperilled  the  safety  of 
the  building. 

When  the  new  lighthouse  was  taken  in  hand,  investiga- 
tion of  the  sea-bed  revealed  an  excellent  foundation  in  the 
dense  hard  chalk,  and  accordingly  a  hole  10  feet  deep  was 
excavated  out  of  the  solid  mass  to  receive  the  footings  of 
the  building.  As  the  site  is  submerged  to  a  great  depth  at 
high-tide,  the  first  operation  was  the  erection  of  a  circular 
dam  carried  to  a  sufficient  height  to  enable  the  men  to  toil 
within.  By  this  arrangement  the  working  spells  were 
lengthened  considerably,  labour  only  being  suspended  at 
high-tide.  When  the  sea  ebbed  below  the  edge  of  the  dam, 
the  water  within  was  pumped  out,  leaving  a  dry  clear  space 
for  the  workmen.  Excavation  had  to  be  carried  out  with 
pickaxe  and  shovel,  blasting  not  being  permitted  for  fear 
of  shattering  and  splitting  up  the  mass  forming  the  crust 
of  the  sea-bed. 

Beside  the  site  a  substantial  iron  staging  was  erected, 
and  from  this  point  to  the  top  of  the  cliffs  behind  a  Bullivant 
cableway  was  stretched,  up  and  down  which  the  various 
requirements  were  carried,  together  with  the  workmen. 
This  cableway,  designed  by  Mr.  W.  T.  H.  Carrington, 
M.I.C.E.,  consulting  engineer  to  Messrs.  Bullivant  and  Co., 
Ltd.,  facilitated  rapid  and  economical  construction  very 
appreciably.  The  span  was  about  600  feet  between  the 
erecting  stage  and  the  cliff  summit,  and  there  were  two 
fixed  ropes  stretched  parallel  from  point  to  point.  One 
rope,  6  inches  in  diameter,  had  a  breaking  strain  of  120  tons  ; 
the  second,  5|  inches  thick,  had  a  breaking  strain  of  100  tons. 
At  the  seaward  end  the  cables  were  anchored  into  the  solid 
chalk.  Everything  required  for  the  constructional  opera- 
tions was  handled  by  this  carrying  system,  and  when  it  is 
recalled  that  some  of  the  blocks  for  the  lower  courses 
weighed  from  4I  to  5  tons,  it  will  be  recognized  that  such  a 


26  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

method  of  handling  these  ungainly  loads,  with  the  care 
that  was  demanded  to  preserve  the  edges  and  faces  from 
injury,  solved  an  abstruse  problem  completely. 

The  base  of  the  tower,  the  diameter  of  which  is  47  feet, 
is  solid  to  a  height  of  48  feet,  except  for  a  central  circular 
space  for  storing  drinking  water.  It  was  designed  by  Sir 
Thomas  Matthews,  M.I.C.E.,  the  Engineer-in-Chief  to  the 
Trinity  Brethren,  and  is  a  graceful  building,  the  tower 
rising  in  a  curve  which  is  described  as  a  "  concave  elliptic 
frustum."  From  the  base  to  the  lantern  gallery  is  123I  feet, 
and  3,660  tons  of  Cornish  granite  were  used  in  its  construc- 
tion. The  over-all  height  to  the  top  of  the  lantern  is  153 
feet.  The  building  is  provided  with  eight  floors,  com- 
prising the  living  and  sleeping  quarters  for  the  keepers, 
storage  of  oil,  and  other  necessaries.  The  light,  of  the 
dioptric  order,  is  of  83,000  candle-power,  and  the  two  white 
flashes  given  every  fifteen  seconds  are  distinguishable  for 
a  distance  of  seventeen  miles,  which  is  the  average  range  of 
modern  British  lighthouses. 

Although  the  constructional  work  was  frequently  inter- 
rupted by  rough  weather,  every  advantage  was  taken  of 
calm  periods.  While  from  the  point  of  daring  engineering 
it  does  not  compare  with  many  of  the  other  great  lights 
of  the  world,  yet  it  certainly  ranks  as  a  fine  example  of  the 
lighthouse  builder's  skill.  Owing  to  the  elaborate  pre- 
cautions observed,  the  achievement  was  not  marred  by  a 
single  fatality,  although  there  were  many  thrilling  moments, 
the  sole  result  of  which,  however,  was  the  loss  of  tools  and 
sections  of  the  plant,  which  in  the  majority  of  cases  were 
recovered  when  the  tide  fell.  The  most  serious  accident 
was  a  crushed  toe,  which  befell  one  of  the  masons  when  a 
stone  was  being  bedded. 

Although  the  lighthouse  is  subjected  to  the  full  fury  of 
wind  and  wave,  if  skilfully  erected  it  will  withstand  the 
ravages  of  both  without  creating  the  slightest  apprehensions 
in  the  engineer's  mind.  The  stones  are  prepared  so  care- 
fully that  they  fit  one  another  like  the  proverbial  glove, 
while  the  cement  fills  every  nook  and  cranny.     Occasion- 


BUILDING  A  LIGHTHOUSE  27 

ally,  however,  the  cement  will  succumb  to  the  natural  dis- 
integrating forces,  and,  becoming  detached,  reveal  a  point 
vulnerable  to  attack.  The  air  within  the  interstice  becomes 
compressed  by  the  surging  water,  and  thereby  the  fabric  is 
liable  to  be  shattered.  Some  years  ago  one  or  two  of  the 
lighthouses  guarding  the  Great  Lakes  of  North  America 
were  found  to  have  become  weakened  from  this  cause.  A 
novel  remedy  was  evolved  by  an  ingenious  engineer.  He 
provided  each  tottering  lighthouse  with  an  iron  overcoat, 
enveloping  it  from  top  to  bottom.  The  metal  was  not  laid 
directly  upon  the  masonry,  but  was  so  placed  as  to  leave  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  between  the  inner  face  of  the  metal  and  the 
surface  of  the  masonry.  Liquid  cement  was  then  admitted 
under  pressure — "  grouting  "  it  is  called — into  this  annular 
space,  and  penetrating  every  crack  and  crevice  in  the 
masonry,  and  adhering  both  to  the  metal  and  the  stone- 
work, it  practically  formed  another  intermediate  jacket, 
binding  the  two  so  firmly  together  as  to  make  them  virtually 
one.  This  novel  procedure  absolutely  restored  the  menaced 
building  to  its  original  homogeneity  and  rigidity,  so  that  it 
became  as  sound  as  the  day  on  which  it  was  built. 

Nowadays,  owing  to  the  skill  in  designing  and  the  work- 
manship displayed,  one  never  hears  of  a  modern  lighthouse 
collapsing.  Expense  is  no  object ;  the  engineer  does  not 
endeavour  to  thwart  the  elements,  but  follows  a  design 
wherein  the  minimum  of  resistance  is  offered  to  them. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS 

While  it  is  the  tower  that  probably  creates  the  deepest 
impression  upon  the  popular  mind,  owing  to  the  round  of 
difficulties  overcome  associated  with  its  erection,  yet,  after 
ail,  it  is  the  light  which  is  the  vital  thing  to  the  navigator. 
To  him  symmetry  of  outline  in  the  tower,  the  searching 
problems  that  had  to  be  solved  before  it  was  planted  in  a 
forbidding  spot,  the  risks  that  were  incurred  in  its  erection — 
these  are  minor  details.  His  one  concern  is  the  light  thrown 
from  the  topmost  height,  warning  him  to  keep  off  a  dangerous 
spot  and  by  its  characteristic  enabling  him  to  determine  his 
position. 

I  have  described  the  earliest  type  of  light,  the  open  wood 
or  coal  fire  blazing  on  an  eminence.  In  due  course  the  brazier 
gave  way  to  tallow  candles.  This  was  an  advance,  certainly, 
but  the  range  of  the  naked  light  was  extremely  limited. 
Consequently  efforts  were  made  to  intensify  it  and  to  throw 
it  in  the  desired  direction.  The  first  step  was  made  with  a 
reflector  placed  behind  the  illuminant,  similar  to  that  used 
with  the  cheap  wall-lamp  so  common  in  village  workshops. 
This,  in  its  improved  form,  is  known  as  the  "  catoptric 
system,"  the  reflector  being  of  parabolic  shape,  with  the 
light  so  disposed  that  all  its  rays  (both  horizontal  and 
vertical)  are  reflected  in  one  direction  by  the  aid  of  a  highly 
polished  surface.  While  the  catoptric  system  is  still  used 
on  some  light-vessels,  its  application  to  important  light- 
houses has  fallen  into  desuetude,  as  it  has  been  superseded 
by  vastly  improved  methods.  But  the  reflector,  made 
either  of  silvered  glass  set  in  a  pi aster-of -Paris  mould  or  of 
brightly  polished  metallic  surfaces,  held  the  field  until  the 
great  invention  of  Augustin  Fresnel,  which  completely 
revolutionized  the  science  of  lighthouse  optics. 

28 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  29 

Fresnel  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  French  Lighthouse 
Commission  in  181 1,  and  he  realized  the  shortcomings  of  the 
existing  catoptric  method  only  too  well.  Everyone  knows 
that  when  a  lamp  is  lighted  the  luminous  rays  are  diffused 
on  every  side,  horizontally  as  well  as  vertically.  In  light- 
house operations  the  beam  has  to  be  thrown  in  a  horizontal 
line  only,  while  the  light  which  is  shed  towards  the  top  and 
bottom  must  be  diverted,  so  that  the  proportion  of  waste 
luminosity  may  be  reduced  to  the  minimum.     While  the 


Fig.  2. — Fixed  Apparatus  of  360  Degrees. 

Shows  one  ray  throughout  the  complete  circle. 

{By  permission  of  Messrs,  Chance  Bros,  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 

parabolic  reflector  achieved  this  end  partially,  it  was  far 
from  being  satisfactory,  and  Fresnel  set  to  work  to  condense 
the  whole  of  the  rays  into  a  horizontal  beam.  Buffon,  a 
contemporary  investigator,  as  well  as  Sir  David  Brewster, 
had  suggested  that  the  end  might  be  met  by  building  up  a 
lens  in  separate  concentric  rings,  but  neither  reduced  his 
theories  to  practice. 

Fresnel  invented  a  very  simple  system.     He  took  a  central 
piece  of  glass,  which  may  be  described  as  a  bull's-eye,  and 


30 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


around  this  disposed  a  number  of  concentric  rings  of  glass. 
But  these  rings  projected  beyond  one  another.  Each  con- 
stituted the  edge  of  a  lens  which,  while  its  radius  differed 
from  that  of  its  neighbour,  owing  to  its  position,  yet  was  of 
the  same  focus  in  regard  to  the  source  of  illumination.  The 
parts  were  shaped  with  extreme  care  and  were  united  in 
position  by  the  aid  of  fish  glue,  the  whole  being  mounted  in 
a  metal  frame.  The  advantage  of  the  system  was  apparent 
in  the  first  demonstrations.    The  lenses  being  comparatively 


Fig.  3. 


— Single  Flashing  Apparatus  (One  Panel 
AND  Mirror). 

(By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros,  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 


thin,  only  one-tenth  of  the  light  passing  through  was  ab- 
sorbed, whereas  in  the  old  parabolic  reflectors  one-half  of  the 
light  was  lost. 

This  revolutionary  development  was  perfected  in  1822, 
and  in  the  following  year  it  was  submitted  to  its  first  practical 
application  on  the  tower  of  Cordouan  in  the  Gironde.  Several 
modifications  were  made  by  the  inventor  for  the  purpose  of 
adapting  his  system  to  varying  conditions.  One  of  the  most 
important  was  the  disposition  of  lenses  and  mirrors  above 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS 


31 


the  optical  apparatus  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  driving 
back  the  rays  which  were  sent  out  vertically  from  the  illumi- 
nant,  so  that  they  might  be  mingled  with  the  horizontal 
beam,  thereby  reinforcing  it.  At  a  later  date  similar 
equiangular  prisms  were  placed  below  the  horizontal  beam 
so  as  to  catch  the  light  thrown  downwards  from  the  luminous 
source,  the  result  being  that  finally  none,  or  very  little,  of 
the  light  emitted  by  the  illuminant  was  lost,  except  by 
absorption  in  the  process  of  bending  the  rays  into  the  desired 
direction. 


Fig. 


-A  Twenty-Four  Panel  Light,  which  was  introduced 
INTO  Certain  French  Lighthouses. 


In  this  ingenious  manner  the  circle  of  light  is  divided  into 
sections,  called  "  panels,"  each  of  which  comprises  its  bull's- 
eye  and  its  group  of  concentric  rings  and  prisms.  The 
extent  of  this  division  varies  appreciably,  as  many  as 
sixteen  panels  being  utilized  in  some  instances.  In  this 
direction,  however,  subdivision  can  be  carried  too  far. 
Thus,  in  some  of  the  French  lighthouses  no  less  than  twenty- 
four  panels  were  introduced.  The  disadvantage  is  obvious. 
The  total  volume  of  light  emitted  from  the  luminous  source 
has  to  be  divided  into  twenty-four  parts,  one  for  each  panel. 
But  the  fewer  the  panels,  the  more  light  is  thrown  through 


32 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


each,  and  the  correspondingly  greater  power  of  the  beam. 
Thus,  in  a  four-panel  light  each  beam  will  be  six  times  as 
powerful  as  that  thrown  from  a  twenty-four  panel  apparatus 
of  the  same  type. 

Fresnel  also  introduced  the  system  of  revolving  the 
optical  apparatus,  and  by  the  introduction  of  suitable  devices 
was  able  to  give  the  light  a  flashing  characteristic,  so  that 
it  became  possible  to  provide  a  means  of  identifying  a  light 
from  a  distance  entirely  by  the  peculiarity  of  its  flash.  The 
French  authorities  were  so  impressed  with  the  wonderful 


Fig.  5. — A  Four- Panel  Light. 

The  ray  thrown  through  each  panel  is  six  times  as  powerful  as  the 
beam  thrown  through  a  twenty-four  panel  apparatus. 


improvement  produced  by  Fresnel's  epoch-making  invention 
that  it  was  adopted  immediately  for  all  French  lights.  Great 
Britain  followed  suit  a  few  years  later,  while  other  countries 
embraced  the  system  subsequently,  so  that  the  Fresnel  lens 
eventually  came  into  universal  use. 

But  the  Frenchman's  ingenious  invention  has  been  de- 
veloped out  of  recognition.  To-day  only  the  fundamental 
basis  is  retained.  Marked  improvements  were  made  by  Mr. 
Alan  Stevenson,  the  famous  Scottish  lighthouse  engineer. 
In  fact,  he  carried  the  idea  to  a  far  greater  degree  than 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS 


33 


Fresnel  ever  contemplated,  and  in  some  instances  even 
anticipated  the  latter's  subsequent  modifications  and  im- 
provements. This  was  demonstrated  more  particularly  in 
the  holophotal  revolving  apparatus,  the  first  example  of 
which  he  designed  for  the  North  Ronaldshay  lighthouse  in 
1850,  a  similar  apparatus  being  devised  some  years  later  by 
Fresnel.  In  1862  another  great  improvement  was  made  by 
Mr.  J.  T.  Chance,  of  the  well-known  lighthouse  engineering 
firm  of  Birmingham,  which  proved  so  successful  that  it  was 


^0^Miii,^^ii^U^i»H^^^  ^ 


Fig.  6. — Single  Apparatus  in  Four  Panels. 

(^By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros,  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 


incorporated  for  first  and  third  order  apparatuses  in  the 
New  Zealand  lights  designed  by  Messrs.  Stevenson  in  the 
same  year. 

The  French  and  British  investigators,  however,  were  not 
having  things  entirely  their  own  way.  The  United  States 
played  a  part  in  these  developments,  although  they  did  not 
enter  very  successfully  into  the  problem.  The  first  light- 
house at  Boston  Harbour  carried  candles  until  superseded 
by  an  ordinary  lamp,  which  was  hung  in  the  lantern  in  much 
the  same  way  as  it  might  have  been  suspended  behind  the 

3 


34 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


window  of  a  private  dwelling.  An  inventor,  Mr.  Winslow 
Lewis,  who  confessed  that  he  knew  nothing  about  lighthouse 
optics,  patented  what  he  called  a  "  magnifying  and  reflecting 
lantern  "  for  lighthouse  work,  which  he  claimed  was  a  lamp, 
a  reflector,  and  a  magnifier,  all  in  one.  It  was  as  crude  a 
device  as  has  ever  emanated  from  an  inventive  brain,  but 
the  designer  succeeded  in  impressing  the  Government  so 
effectively  that  they  gave  him  £4,000,  or  $20,000,  for  his 


\     %.. . 
\        >- 


Fig.  7. — Double  Flashing  Apparatus  :  Two 
Panels  and  Mirror. 

(By  perinission  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros,  and  Co.,  Lid.) 

invention.  The  reflector  was  wrought  of  thin  copper  with 
3/  silvered  surface,  while  the  magnifier,  the  essence  of  the 
invention,  was  what  he  called  a  "  lens,"  but  which  in  reality 
comprised  only  a  circular  transparent  mass,  9  inches  in 
diameter, .  and  varying  from  2|  to  4  inches  in  thickness, 
made  of  bottle-green  glass.  The  Government  considered 
that  it  had  acquired  a  valuable  invention,  and  was  somewhat 
dismayed  by  the  blunt  opinion  of  one  of  its  inspectors  who 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS 


35 


held  contrary  views  concerning  the  magnifier,  inasmuch  as 
he  reported  cynically  that  its  only  merit  was  that  it  made 
"  a  bad  light  worse." 

The  inventor  did  not  manifest  any  antagonism  to  this 
criticism,  but  immediately  pointed  out  the  great  economy 
in  the  consumption  of  oil  that  was  arising  from  the  use  of 
his  idea.  Indeed,  he  prosecuted  his  claims  so  successfully 
that  he  clinched  a  profitable  bargain  to  himself  with  the 


■~'l 

6 

At 

E  Flashing 

Apparatus 

.  Two  Groups 

EACH  OF  Two  Panels. 

{By  permission  of  Messrs.  CItance  Bros,  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 

Government.  His  apparatus  had  been  fitted  to  thirty-four 
lights,  and  he  contracted  to  maintain  them  on  the  basis  of 
receiving  one-half  of  the  oil  previously  consumed  by  the 
lamps  which  his  invention  superseded.  This  arrangement 
was  in  vogue  for  five  years,  when  it  was  renewed,  with  the 
difference  that  on  this  occasion  the  Government,  concluding 
that  the  inventor  was  making  too  much  out  of  the  trans- 
action, reduced  the  allowance  to  one-third.  Subsequently 
the  invention  received  higher  commendation  from  the  ofhcials 


36 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


than  that  advanced  by  the  critical  inspector,  although  it 
must  be  pointed  out  that  meanwhile  the  magnifying  bull's- 
eye  had  been  abandoned,  and  a  new  type  of  reflector  intro- 
duced, so  that  the  sole  remaining  feature  of  the  wonderful 
invention  was  the  lamp.  Even  that  had  been  modified. 
When  the  Lighthouse  Board  was  established  in  1852  it 


M\\\v\\\V\\\\\\Ov\v\\\v>v\>^-"..  ■ 


Fig.  g. — Triple  Flashing  Apparatus 
Panels  and  Mirror. 

{By  permhsien  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros,  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 


Three 


abolished  the  much-discussed  invention,  and  introduced  the 
Fresnel  system,  bringing  the  United  States  into  line  with  the 
rest  of  the  world. 

One  feature  of  the  subject  cannot  fail  to  arrest  attention. 
This  is  the  possibility  of  producing  a  variety  of  combinations 
by  the  aid  of  the  lenses  to  fulfil  different  requirements.  The 
Fresnel,  Stevenson,  and  Chance  developments  in  the  science 
of  lighthouse  optics  facilitated  this  work  very  significantly. 
Accordingly,  to-day  a  variety  of  lights,  evolved  from  the 
variations  in  the  mounting  of  the  lenses,  is  in  vogue.    For 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS 


37 


purposes  of  identification  they  have  been  divided  into  a 
number  of  classifications,  and,  for  the  convenience  of  the 
navigator,  are  described  as  Hghts  of  the  first  order,  second 
order,  and  so  on.  Broadly  speaking,  there  are  seven  main 
groups,  or  orders,  the  rating  only  applying  to  dioptric  or 
catadioptric  lights,  indicating  the  bending  of  the  luminous 
rays  in  the  desired  direction,  either  by  refraction  and  reflec- 
tion through  the  medium  of  prisms,  or  a  combination  of 
both.  Actually  there  is  a  distinction  between  these  two, 
the  true  dioptric  system  referring  only  to  refraction,  where 
the  ray  is  bent  in  the  desired  direction  by  a  glass  agent, 
known  as  a  "refracting  prism."  In  the  catadioptric  system,  on 
the  other  hand,  both  methods  are  employed,  since  the  prism 
performs  the  dual  purpose  of  reflecting  and  refracting  the 
rays.  However,  in  modern  lighthouse  parlance  both  are 
grouped  under  the  one  distinction  "  dioptric." 

The  rating  or  classification  of  the  lights  varies  according 
to  the  inside  radius  or  focal  distance  of  the  lens — in  other 
words,  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  light  to  the  inner 
surface  of  the  lens.    The  main  groups  are  as  follows  : 

Hyperradial,  1,330  millimetres  (52-3  inches)  focal  distance. 


1st  order. 

920 

(36-2      , 

2nd 

700 

(27-6      , 

3rd       „ 

500 

(19-7      . 

3i         ,. 

375 

(14-7      . 

4th 

250 

(9-8      , 

5th       „ 

187-5 

(7-4      . 

6th 

150 

(5-9      , 

The  most  powerful  apparatus  used  to-day,  however,  is 
that  known  as  the  "  hyperradiant,"  and  it  is  the  largest 
which  has  yet  been  devised.  For  this,  lighthouse  engineering 
is  indebted  to  Messrs.  Stevenson,  the  engineers  to  the  Com- 
missioners of  Northern  Lighthouses.  It  was  first  suggested 
as  far  back  as  1869,  and  experiments  were  carried  out  which 
emphasized  the  fact  that  such  an  apparatus  was  required, 
since  it  was  found  that  when  large  gas-burners  were  used 
much  of  the  light  in  revolving  apparatuses  was  out  of  focus 
and  escaped  condensation.     The  Scottish  engineers  there- 


38 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


upon  suggested  that  an  apparatus  should  be  used  having 
a  focal  distance  of  1,330  millimetres,  or  52*3  inches.  In 
fact,  they  went  farther  and  suggested  even  larger  appara- 
tuses, but  this  idea  has  not  matured.  But  it  was  not  until 
1885  that  Messrs.  Stevenson  had  such  a  system  manu- 
factured, and  then  it  was  tested  at  the  South  Foreland  beside 
the  powerful  lenses  which  had  just  been  built  for  the  new 
Eddystone  and  the  Mew  Island  lighthouses.  The  merits 
of  the  theories  advanced  by  Messrs.  Stevenson  were  then 


Fig.  10. — Quadruple  Flashing  Apparatus  : 
Four  Panels. 

(By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros-  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 

completely  proved,  for  it  was  found  that  with  a  ten-ring 
gas-burner  the  hyperradiant  apparatus  threw  a  light  nearly 
twice  as  powerful  as  that  given  by  the  rival  lenses  with  the 
same  burner. 

At  the  present  moment  the  hyperradiant  is  regarded  as 
the  ultima  thule  of  lighthouse  optical  engineering,  and  Messrs. 
Chance  Brothers  and  Co.,  of  Birmingham,  have  built  some 
very  magnificent  apparatuses  of  this  order.  At  present  there 
are  not  more  than  a  dozen  such  powerful  lights  in  operation. 
Three  are  on  the  English  coast,  at  Bishop  Rock,  Spurn 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  39 

Point,  and  Round  Island,  respectively  ;  two  in  Scotland,  at 
Fair  Isle  and  Sule  Skerry  ;  two  in  Ireland,  at  Bull  Rock  and 
Tory  Island  ;  one  in  France,  at  Cap  d'Antifer  ;  one  in  China, 
at  Pei  Yu-shan ;  one  in  India,  at  Manora  Point,  Karachi ; 
and  the  Cape  Race  light  in  Newfoundland.  The  hyper- 
radiant  apparatus  is  a  massive  cage  of  glass,  standing  some 
12  feet  in  height,  and,  as  may  be  supposed,  is  extremely 
expensive. 

There  is  another  point  in  lighthouse  optics  which  demands 
explanation.  This  is  the  term  "  divergence,"  which  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  duration  of  the  flash.  In  speaking 
about  focus,  the  engineer  follows  somewhat  in  Euclid's  foot- 
steps in  regard  to  the  definition  of  a  point ;  in  a  way  it  is 
equally  imaginary.  The  focal  point  does  not  mean  the 
whole  of  the  flame,  but  the  centre  of  the  luminous  source, 
and,  as  is  obvious,  it  is  impossible  to  secure  a  flame  without 
dimensions.  It  may  be  an  attenuated,  round,  oval,  or  fan- 
shaped  light — the  result  is  the  same.  The  focal  point  is  the 
theoretical  centre  of  the  luminous  source,  and  the  rays, 
coming  from  the  top,  sides,  and  bottom  of  the  flame  cannot 
come  from  the  true  focus.  If  they  did,  all  the  light  from 
one  panel  would  be  emitted  in  absolutely  parallel  lines,  and 
therefore  in  a  revolving  apparatus  the  beam  would  pass  any 
given  point  on  the  horizon  in  an  infinitely  short  period  of 
time — to  be  precise,  instantaneously.  But  the  ex-focal  rays 
of  the  flame,  in  passing  through  the  lens,  emerge  at  an  angle 
to  those  coming  from  the  absolute  centre,  so  that  the  whole 
beam  becomes  "  diverged,"  and  throws  a  cone  of  light  from 
the  lens.  Consequently  the  beam  occupies  an  appreciable 
period  of  time  in  passing  a  given  point  on  the  horizon. 

As  may  be  supposed,  the  intricate  character  of  the  lenses 
constituting  the  optical  apparatus  of  the  modern  light- 
house demands  the  highest  skill  and  infinite  care  in  their 
preparation,  while  the  composition  of  the  glass  itself  is  a 
closely  guarded  secret.  There  are  less  than  half  a  dozen 
firms  in  the  world  engaged  in  this  delicate  and  highly 
specialized  work,  of  which  France  claims  three,  Germany  one, 
and  Great  Britain  one.    All  the  lighthouse  authorities  of  the 


40 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


various  nations  have  to  secure  their  requirements  from  one 
or  other  of  these  organizations.  The  industry  commenced 
in  France,  and  for  many  years  the  French  reigned  supreme. 
Then  it  contrived  to  make  its  entrance  into  England,  and 
was  taken  up  by  the  family  of  Chance  in  Birmingham,  who 
soon  proved  themselves  equal  to  their  French  leaders. 

The  British  firm  has  established  a  unique  reputation,  as 
it  has  been  responsible  for  the  majority  of  the  great  lights 
of  the  world,  some  of  which  are  not  only  of  huge  dimensions 
and  weight,  but  also  of  novel  form.     The  hyperradial  ap- 


5^ 


tt^ 


m^ 


1 1 K Ss> 

/ 1  te^ 


I  \ 


^^5«s« 


fc 


Fig.  II. — Red  and  White  Flashing  Apparatus. 

{^By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros,  atid  Co.,  Ltd.) 

paratuses  which  have  been  placed  recently  in  the  towers  of 
Manora  Point  and  Cape  Race  probably  rank  as  the  most 
powerful  and  the  finest  in  existence.  These  are  used  in 
conjunction  with  the  petroleum  vapour  incandescent  burner. 
The  Cape  Race  light,  for  instance,  comprises  a  revolving 
optic  of  four  panels,  subtending  a  horizontal  angle  of 
90  degrees,  with  a  vertical  angle  of  I2i|  degrees.  Each  lens 
comprises  the  central  disc,  or  bull's-eye,  around  which  are 
placed  nine  rings  of  glass,  giving  a  total  refracting  angle  of 
57  degrees.     In  order  to  bend  the  vertical  rays  into  a  hori- 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  41 

zontal  path  twenty-two  catadioptric  reflecting  prisms  are 
disposed  above  the  lens,  while  below  are  thirteen  similar 
prisms.  The  total  amount  of  glass  worked  into  the  four 
panels  is  about  6,720  pounds,  and  the  prisms  are  mounted 
in  gun-metal  frames,  which  weigh  approximately  4,800 
pounds,  so  that  the  total  weight  of  the  glass  portion  and  its 
mounting  alone,  standing  some  12  feet  in  height,  is  over 
11,500  pounds.  The  installation  completed  for  the  equip- 
ment of  the  Manora  Point  lighthouse,  Karachi,  is  very  similar. 

In  some  cases  the  demand  for  a  powerful  light  has  been 
met  with  a  system  differing  from  the  "  hyperradiant." 
The  lenses  and  respective  groups  of  refractors  are  super 
posed,  each  tier  having  its  individual  burner  and  flues  for 
carrying  off  the  products  of  combustion.  In  this  way  we 
have  the  biform,  comprising  two  such  panels  arranged  one 
above  the  other,  as  in  the  Fastnet  and  Eddystone  lights  ; 
and  the  quadriform,  wherein  four  tiers  are  built  one  above 
the  other,  as  instafled  at  the  Mew  Island  light  in  Ireland. 
The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  is  that  a  beam  of  great 
intensity  is  secured  with  a  lantern  of  comparatively  small 
diameter. 

The  French  authorities  adopted  a  modification  of  this 
system.  Instead  of  placing  two  lenses  and  refractors  one 
above  the  other,  they  ranged  them  side  by  side,  the  effect 
being  analogous  to  a  couple  of  squinting  eyes,  the  panels 
being  parallel  and  therefore  throwing  out  parallel  beams. 
But  these  adaptations  have  not  come  into  extensive  use, 
as  they  have  been  superseded  by  more  simple  means  of 
achieving  similar  requirements  with  an  even  more  powerful 
ray.  The  hyperradiant  stands  as  the  finest  type  of  ap- 
paratus yet  devised,  and  therefore  is  employed  when  an 
extremely  powerful  light  is  required. 

While  the  design  and  arrangement  of  the  optical  apparatus 
is  certainly  a  most  vital  and  dehcate  task,  the  mounting 
thereof  upon  a  substantial  support  in  such  a  way  that  it  may 
perform  its  work  with  the  highest  efficiency  is  equally 
imperative,  since  the  finest  apparatus  might  be  very  ad- 
versely affected  by  being  improperly  mounted. 


42  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

Obviously,  owing  to  the  great  weight  of  the  glass,  the 
support  must  be  heavy  and  substantial.  A  massive  cast- 
iron  pedestal  is  employed  for  this  purpose.  When  the  light 
is  of  the  revolving  character,  means  have  to  be  incorporated 
to  secure  the  requisite  rotation.  In  the  early  days  the 
turntable  upon  which  the  lens  is  mounted  ran  upon  rollers, 
but  now  a  very  much  better  system  is  universally  employed. 
This  has  been  brought  to  a  high  standard  of  perfection  by 
Messrs.  Chance  of  Birmingham,  who  have  carried  out  un- 


FiG.  12. — Apparatus  showing  a  Double  Flash, 

FOLLOWED    BY   A    SiNGLE   FlASH. 
{By  permission  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros,  and  Co.,  Ltd.) 

ceasing  experiments  in  this  field.  The  objection  to  rollers 
was  the  enormous  friction  that  was  set  up,  and  the  great 
effort  that  was  required,  not  only  to  set  the  lenses  revolving, 
but  to  keep  them  rotating  at  a  steady  pace.  In  the  modern 
apparatus  the  rollers  are  superseded  by  an  iron  trough  filled 
with  mercury,  upon  which  floats  the  turntable  carrying  the 
lenses.  When  the  apparatus  is  properly  built  and  balanced, 
the  friction  is  so  slight  that  the  turntable  can  be  set  in  motion 
by  the  little  finger,  notwithstanding  that  several  tons  have 
to  be  moved.     Although  the  optical  part  of  the  apparatus 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  43 

floats  upon  the  bed  of  quicksilver  in  the  same  way  as  a  cork 
lifebelt  floats  upon  water,  it  is  provided  with  rollers  which 
serve  to  hold  the  whole  apparatus  steady  and  to  overcome 
any  oscillation. 

In  the  case  of  an  immense  apparatus  such  as  a  hyper- 
radiant  lens,  which,  together  with  the  turntable,  may  have 
a  total  weight  of  17,000  pounds,  an  enormous  quantity  of 
mercury  is  required.  The  trough  of  the  Cape  Race  hyper- 
radiant  light  carries  950  pounds  of  quicksilver,  upon  which 
the  lantern  is  floated.  In  such  an  instance,  also,  the  pedestal 
is  a  weighty  part  of  the  apparatus,  representing  in  this 
case  about  26,800  pounds,  so  that  the  complete  apparatus 
utilized  to  throw  the  1,100,000  candle-power  beam  from 
the  guardian  of  the  Newfoundland  coast  aggregates,  when 
in  working  order,  some  44,000  pounds,  or  approximately 
20  tons. 

Within  the  base  of  the  pedestal  is  mounted  the  mechanism 
for  rotating  the  optical  apparatus.  This  is  of  the  clockwork 
type  driven  by  a  weight.  The  latter  moves  up  and  down  a 
tube  which  extends  vertically  to  a  certain  depth  through 
the  centre  of  the  tower.  The  weight  of  the  driving  force 
and  the  depth  of  its  fall  naturally  vary  according  to  the 
character  of  the  light.  In  the  Cape  Race  light  the  weight 
is  of  900  pounds,  and  it  falls  14I  feet  per  hour.  Similarly, 
the  length  of  time  which  the  clock  will  run  on  one  winding 
fluctuates.  As  a  rule  it  requires  to  be  rewound  once  every 
sixty  or  ninety  minutes.  A  longer  run  is  not  recommended, 
as  it  would  demand  a  longer  weight-tube,  while  many 
authorities  prefer  the  frequent  winding,  as  the  man  on  duty 
is  kept  on  the  alert  thereby.  As  the  weight  approaches  the 
bottom  of  its  tube  it  sets  an  electric  bell  or  gong  in  action, 
which  serves  to  warn  the  light-keeper  that  the  mechanism 
demands  rewinding. 

The  weight  and  clockwork  mechanism  perfected  by 
Messrs.  Chance  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  in  service.  The 
rotation  is  perfect  and  even,  owing  to  the  governing  system 
incorporated,  while  the  steel  wire  carrying  the  weight  is 
preferable  to  the  chain,  which  is  subject  to  wear  and  is  noisy 


H 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


< 
o 
o 

K 
O 


W   5 


5"  ^ 
O 


O  IH 


a  H 
o 

W 


o 

1-1 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS 


45 


in  action.  In  the  Chance  clockwork  gear  the  weight  is  just 
sufficient  to  start  the  apparatus  from  a  state  of  rest,  the 
advantage  of  such  a  method  being  that,  should  the  apparatus 
be  stopped  in  its  revolution  from  any  untoward  incident,  it 
is  able  to  restart  itself. 

Of  course,  the  clockwork  mechanism  is  required  only  in 
those  cases  where  the  lenticular  apparatus  has  to  be  revolved. 
This  introduces  the  question  of  avoiding  confusion  between 
lights.  When  beacons  were  first  brought  into  service,  the 
lights  were  of  the  fixed  type,  and  the  navigator,  although 
warned  by  the  glare  to  keep  away  from  the  spot  so  marked, 
was  given  no  information  as  to  his  position.  Accordingly, 
lighthouse  engineers  sought  to  assist  him  in  this  direction 
during  the  blackness  of  the  night  by  providing  a  ready  visual 
means  of  identification.  Owing  to  the  ingenuity  which  has 
been  displayed,  it  has  been  rendered  possible  to  ring  the 
changes  upon  a  light  very  extensively. 

These  may  be  subdivided  broadly  as  follows  : 


Type  of  Light. 

Symbol. 

Characteristics. 

Fixed 

F. 

A  steady  continuous  light. 

Flashing 

Fl. 

A  revolving  light  showing  a  single 
flash  at  regular  intervals,  or  a 
fixed  light  with  total  eclipses. 

Fixed  and  flashing 

F.Fl. 

A  fixed  light  varied  at  regular 
intervals  by  a  single  flash  of 
greater  brilliancy. 

Group  flashing 

Gp.Fl. 

Various  combinations  of  flashes 
shown  at  regular  intervals. 

Occulting    . . 

Occ. 

A  steady  light  suddenly  and 
totally  ecUpsed  at  regular  in- 
tervals. 

Group  occulting    . . 

Gp.Occ. 

A  steady  light  suddenly  and  to- 
tally eclipsed  by  a  group  of  two 
or  more  eclipses. 

In  the  foregoing  classifications  only  a  white  light  is  used. 
But  it  may  so  happen  that  the  lighthouse,  owing  to  its 
position  and  the  dangerous  character  of  the  spot  which  it 


46 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


marks,  carries  a  light  which  changes  colour  from  white  to 
red  or  green,  which  are  shown  alternately  in  various  com- 
binations.    These  characteristics  are  indicated  as  follows  : 


Type  of  Light. 

Symbol. 

Characteristics. 

Alternating 

Alt. 

White  and  colour  alternating. 

Alternating  flashing 

Alt.Fl. 

Flashing   alternations   by  revol- 
ving mechanism. 

Alternating       fixed 

Alt.F.Fl. 

Fixed  and  flashing  alternating. 

and  flashing 

Alternating      group 

Alt.Gp.Fl. 

Group  flashing  alternating. 

flashing 

Alternating    occult- 

Alt.Occ. 

Occulting  alternately  with  white 

ing 

and  coloured  light. 

In  timing  a  revolving  or  flashing  light,  the  cycle  is  taken 
from  the  beginning  of  one  flash  to  the  beginning  of  the  next. 
In  these  readings  the  flash  is  always  shorter  than  the 
duration  of  the  eclipse,  while  an  occultation  is  shorter  than, 
or  equal  to,  the  length  of  the  light  interval.  Since  flashing 
and  occulting  may  be  carried  out  with  a  fixed  light  suddenly 
extinguished  or  eclipsed,  the  characterization  is  determined 
solely  according  to  the  relative  duration  of  light  and  dark- 
ness, irrespective  of  the  type  of  apparatus  employed  or  the 
relative  brilliancy.  There  is  one  peculiarity  of  the  flashing 
light  which  may  be  remarked.  At  short  distances  and  in 
clear  weather  a  faint  continuous  light  may  be  shown. 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  development  of  the  optical  ap- 
paratus has  been  the  wonderful  improvement  in  regard  to 
the  illuminants  and  the  methods  of  producing  a  brilliant 
clear  flame.  The  fuel  first  used  upon  the  introduction  of 
the  oil  lamp  was  sperm  or  colza  oil,  the  former  being  obtained 
from  the  whale,  and  the  latter  from  seeds  and  a  wild-cabbage. 
Both  were  very  expensive,  so  that  the  maintenance  of  a  light 
was  costly — so  much  so  that  the  United  States  authorities 
devoted  their  efforts  to  the  perfection  of  a  high-class  lard- 
oil.  This  proved  highly  satisfactory,  possessing  only  one 
drawback.     In  winter  it  congealed  so  much  under  the  low 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  47 

temperature  that  it  had  to  be  heated  before  it  could  be  placed 
in  the  lamp  ;  but  once  the  light  was  set  going,  the  heat 
radiated  from  the  burner  served  to  keep  the  oil  sufficiently 
fluid  to  enable  it  to  mount  the  wick  to  the  point  of  com- 
bustion under  capillary  action. 

So  far  as  the  American  authorities  were  concerned,  the 
advantages  of  lard-oil  sufficed  to  bring  a  cheaper  medium 
than  colza-oil  into  vogue.  A  company,  which  had  been 
induced  by  the  Government  to  install  an  elaborate  and  ex- 
pensive plant  for  the  production  of  colza-oil,  after  prolonged 
experiment  and  efforts  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production, 
announced  that  it  could  not  compete  with  the  lard-oil,  and 
suggested  that  the  latter  should  be  employed  in  preference 
to  the  colza.  The  Government  agreed,  but,  to  compensate 
the  company  for  its  trouble,  purchased  the  plant  which  the 
latter  had  laid  down. 

The  advances  in  the  processes  for  refining  petroleum,  and 
the  exploitation  of  the  extensive  resources  of  the  latter,  led 
to  "  earth-oil,"  in  some  form  or  other,  being  employed  for 
lighthouse  purposes.  The  attempt  was  facilitated  by  the 
invention  and  improvement  of  the  Argand  burner,  whereby 
a  brilliant  white  annular  sheet  of  flame  is  produced.  Various 
lighthouse  engineers  devoted  their  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of  this  burner  in  conjunction  with  paraffin.  Their 
results  were  completely  successful,  and  at  last  paraffin 
became  universally  utilized  as  the  cheapest  and  most  efficient 
illuminant  known. 

The  general  method  of  feeding  the  lamps  was  to  pump  the 
oil  from  a  low  level  to  the  burner,  thereby  producing  practi- 
cally a  pressure-feed  system  in  preference  to  the  capillary 
action  which  is  used  in  the  ordinary  household  lamp.  By 
increasing  the  number  of  rings  the  intensity  of  the  flame 
was  increased,  until  at  last  it  was  thought  that  with  this 
development  perfection  had  been  attained  so  far  as  lamps 
were  concerned. 

Then  came  another  radical  revolution.  The  invention  of 
the  incandescent  gas  mantle  by  Dr.  von  Auer,  and  the 
complete  change  that  it  wrought  in  connection  with  gas 


48  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

lighting,  induced  lighthouse  engineers  to  experiment  in  this 
field.  As  they  could  not  use  coal-gas,  they  devoted  their 
investigations  to  the  perfection  of  a  gas  from  petroleum, 
which  should  be  capable  of  combustion  with  the  incandescent 
burner.  Many  years  were  devoted  to  these  experiments, 
and  many  petroleum  vapour  systems  were  devised.  One  of 
the  best  known,  most  successful,  and  most  scientifically 
perfect,  is  the  Chance  incandescent  light.  This  burner  is 
used  in  many  of  the  most  powerful  lights  of  the  world  and 
has  given  complete  satisfaction.  The  mantle  varies  in  size 
with  the  size  and  type  of  the  light,  ranging  from  35  to  85 
millimetres  in  diameter,  the  latter,  in  conjunction  with  a 
hyperradial  apparatus,  producing  a  light  exceeding  1,000,000 
candle-power. 

Not  only  was  a  far  more  powerful  light  obtained  in  this 
manner  with  the  assistance  of  the  petroleum  vapour  burner 
and  incandescent  mantle,  but  the  cost  of  maintaining  the 
light  was  reduced,  owing  to  the  great  economy  in  oil  con- 
sumption that  was  effected  thereby,  the  largest  mantle  and 
burner — 85  millimetres — burning  only  2|  pints  of  oil  per 
hour.  The  light  thus  obtained,  while  being  vastly  superior 
to  that  derived  from  a  six-wick  oil-burner,  enables  a  saving 
of  nearly  £48,  or  $240,  per  annum  to  be  recorded,  taking  the 
cost  of  the  petroleum  at  is.,  or  25  cents,  per  gallon  delivered 
to  the  lighthouse. 

While  petroleum  is  generally  used,  some  countries  have 
adopted  other  oil  fuels  for  small  permanent  lights.  Thus, 
in  Germany  compressed  oil-gas,  water-gas  associated  with 
benzine  vapour,  and  Blau  liquid  gas,  are  utilized.  The  last- 
named  is  coming  very  extensively  into  vogue,  also,  in  Holland, 
Denmark,  and  Austria.  Blau  gas  has  the  advantage  that 
it  can  be  transported  in  small  steel  tanks  under  extremely 
high  pressure— up  to  100  atmospheres,  or  approximately 
1,400  pounds  per  square  inch.  It  is  an  extract  of  oil-gas 
produced  at  a  low  pressure  in  the  gas  retorts,  and  then 
compressed  so  severely  that  it  liquefies.  The  fuel,  as  it  is 
drawn  from  the  cylinder  in  which  it  is  stored,  has  the  pressure 
reduced  bv  means  of  a  valve,  so  that  it  reaches  the  burner  j 


By  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros.  &•  Co.,  Ltd. 


THE    HYPERRADIAL  APPARATUS   FOR   THE    MANORA   POINT    LIGHT, 
KARACHI,    INDIA. 

Of  1,330  millimetres  focus,  this  is  the  most  powerful  and  largest  lighthouse  apparatus  made. 


By  courtesy  o/AIcssrs.  Chance  Bros,  &'  Co.,  Ltd. 


FIRST   ORDER   TRIPLE   FLASHING   LIGHT   OF   920   MILLIMETRES 
FOCAL   DISTANCE    FOR   CHILANG   LIGHTHOUSE,   CHINA. 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  49 

in  a  gaseous  form  at  a  pressure  equivalent  to  that  of  the  coal- 
gas  used  in  private  houses,  and  is  burned  in  the  same  way 
with  an  incandescent  mantle.  The  advantage  of  this 
method  lies  in  the  facility  with  which  large  volumes  of  gas 
may  be  transported,  a  steel  cylinder  containing  7,500  cubic 
feet  weighing  only  132  pounds.  It  is  also  inexpensive,  a 
bottle  of  the  foregoing  capacity  costing  only  12s.  6d.,  or  S3. 
In  some  cases  the  incandescent  mantles,  the  average  life 
of  which  is  about  a  fortnight,  are  of  large  diameter,  running 
up  to  100  millimetres,  or  about  4  inches. 

Recently  Mr.  Gustaf  Dalen,  of  the  Gas  Accumulator  Com- 
pany of  Stockholm,  the  inventor  of  the  Dalen  flasher  and 
sun-valve,  which  are  described  elsewhere,  has  introduced  a 
new  illuminant,  which  is  coming  into  vogue,  especially  on 
the  Continent.  This  is  called  "  Dalengas,"  and  is  a  mixture 
of  9  per  cent,  dissolved  acetylene  and  91  per  cent,  atmo- 
spheric air.  Here  the  dissolved  acetylene  gas  is  conducted 
from  a  storage  reservoir  or  high-pressure  gas  cylinder,  of 
special  construction,  to  a  governor,  where  the  pressure  is 
reduced,  and  then  to  the  mixing  apparatus,  where  the 
acetylene  gas  is  associated  with  the  air  in  the  above  pro- 
portions. The  idea  of  this  combination  and  method  is  to 
enable  an  acetylene  gas  mixture  to  be  used  with  the  ordinary 
incandescent  mantles. 

The  advantage  of  the  Dalengas,  according  to  present 
experience,  is  the  increased  candle-power  that  is  obtainable 
as  compared  with  other  systems,  the  superiority  being  about 
75  per  cent,  under  ordinary  conditions.  With  the  largest 
Fresnel  lenses  a  lighting  power  of  200,000  Hefner  candle- 
power  is  secured,  while  with  revolving  lenses  of  the  latest  type 
a  beam  of  3,000,000  candle-power  can  be  obtained.  The  flame 
is  small,  and  thus  becomes  concentrated  more  in  the  focus  of 
the  lens,  so  that  the  divergence  of  the  light  may  be  dimin- 
ished if  desired.  When  a  light  of  a  certain  range  is  to  be 
installed,  the  optical  apparatus  can  be  made  smaller  for 
Dalengas  than  for  other  illuminants,  and  the  cost  is  reduced 
correspondingly.  Similarly,  if  the  system  is  introduced 
into  an  existing  light,  the  latter  can  be  made  appreciably 

4 


50  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

more  powerful,  without  changing  the  optical  apparatus  or 
affecting  the  divergence. 

In  this  system  the  gas  is  conducted  into  the  lens  apparatus 
from  above,  and  the  lighting  arrangement  is  quite  indepen- 
dent of,  and  does  not  interfere  in  any  way  with,  the  revolving 
apparatus,  while  the  time  spent  in  changing  the  mantle  is 
less  than  half  a  minute. 

All  combustible  gases,  mixed  with  air  in  certain  pro- 
portions, may  produce  more  or  less  violent  detonations  when 
fired.  But  the  quantity  of  mixed  gas  in  this  instance  is 
confined  in  the  length  of  piping  between  the  burner  and  the 
mixing  apparatus,  and  this  quantity  is  so  small  that  an 
explosion  cannot  be  dangerous.  In  fact,  all  such  danger  has 
been  guarded  against  completely— is,  indeed,  impossible  in 
any  circumstances. 

Electric  light  has  been  adopted  in  one  or  two  cases ;  but 
while  the  foremost  authorities  agree  that  it  throws  the  best, 
most  brilliant  and  most  powerful  beam  of  light,  the  system  is 
generally  impracticable  on  account  of  its  great  cost.    When 
tests  with  this  light  were  made  some  years  ago  in  com- 
parison with  the  light  thrown  from  oil  burners,  it  was  claimed 
that  the  latter,  owing  to  its  reddish-yellow  tinge,  was  the 
most  suitable  from  the  all-round  point  of  view,  and  that  it 
could  penetrate  to  a  greater  distance  in  foggy  weather.     I 
have  been  informed  by  several  authorities,  who  have  gone 
more  deeply  into  this  question  since,  that  this  is  a  fallacy, 
and  that  the  advantage  rests  completely  with  electric  light. 
Experience  in  Germany,  which  has  two  magnificent  electric 
lighthouses,  and  in  Scotland,  certainly  supports  this  con- 
tention, and  I  have  been  assured  that  the  sole  reason  why 
electric  lighting  has  not  been  adopted  more  widely  is  the 
heavy  cost,  both  of  installation  and  of  maintenance.     When 
electric  lighting  is  rendered  cheaper  and  is  brought  more 
to  the  level  of  existing  Hghting  arrangements,   one  may 
expect   another    complete   change   in   lighthouse   practice. 
In   this   direction,  as   explained   in   another   chapter,    the 
Germans  have  carried  out  practical  experiments  in  their 
characteristic    manner,    and    have    brought    the    cost    of 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  51 

maintaining  a  most  powerful  electric  light  to  the  mini- 
mum. 

One  very  great  advantage  of  the  electric  light  is  the  ease 
with  which  the  power  of  the  beam  may  be  increased  during 
thick  weather,  so  as  to  secure  penetration  to  the  greatest 
distance,  and  decreased  to  suit  easier  conditions  in  clear 
weather. 

This  point  raises  the  question,  "  From  how  far  can  a  light 
be  seen  out  at  sea  ?"  This  factor  is  influenced  by  climatic 
conditions,  and  also  by  the  curvature  of  the  earth.  The 
higher  the  light,  or  the  spectator,  or  both,  is  elevated  above 
the  water,  the  greater  the  distance  from  which  the  light  can 
be  seen.  The  table  on  p.  52,  prepared  by  Mr.  Alan  Steven- 
son, the  eminent  Scottish  lighthouse  engineer,  gives  the 
distances  at  which  objects  can  be  seen  at  sea,  according  to 
the  respective  elevations  of  the  object  and  the  eye  of  the 
observer. 

For  instance,  the  passenger  on  a  liner  the  boat-deck  of 
which  is  40  feet  above  the  water,  approaching  the  English 
Channel,  will  sight  the  Bishop  Rock  light  from  a  distance 
of  about  22  miles,  because  the  focal  plane — that  is,  the  bull's- 
eye  of  the  lens — is  163  feet  above  the  water,  which,  according 
to  the  following  table,  equals  about  14-^  miles,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  height  of  the  boat's  deck,  40  feet  representing 
7-25  miles.  Similarly,  the  ray  of  the  Belle  He  light  will 
come  into  view  when  the  vessel  is  32 1  miles  distant — height 
of  focal  plane  of  light,  470  feet  =  25  miles,  +  eye  of 
observer  on  board  the  liner,  45  feet  =  7*69  miles  ;  while  the 
Navesink  light,  being  246  feet  above  the  water,  may  be 
picked  up  by  the  captain  of  a  liner  from  a  distance  of 
28  miles.  The  range  of  many  lights,  however,  owing  to 
the  curvature  of  the  earth,  is  greatly  in  excess  of  their 
geographical  range,  and  with  the  most  powerful  lights  the 
glare  of  the  luminous  beams  sweeping  the  clouds  overhead 
may  be  seen  for  a  full  hour  or  more  before  the  ray  itself 
comes  into  view. 

So  far  as  the  candle-power  of  any  light  is  concerned,  the 
method  of  determining  this  factor,  varying  according  to  the 


52 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


w 

Wry 

o> 

O  K 
OH 
O  , 


<J,  w 

w 

w 

5 

w 

125 

H 

w 

W 

O 

pq 

o 

1—1 

^ 

H 

<1 

<> 

u 

W 

en 
H 

w 

E:i 

w 

t— 1 

ffi 

m  H 

o 

w 

ffi^ 

y  <3 

K 

75 

^ 

o 

I— t 

H 

C/3 

> 

WW 

o  w 

;z;w 

H 

w 
> 

1— 1 

Q 

s 

W 

w 

O 

w 

w 
w 

W 

m 

<: 

H 

L«       . 

d  °  s 

"Sis 

^ 

t^ 

VO 

^ 

0 

10 

0 

0 

in 

00 

in 

Ti- 

00 

H 

Op 

Tf 

o> 

CO 

VO 

0^ 

M 

N 

N 

Th 

•n 

N 

CO 

a> 

M 

C< 

V 

10 

v6 

00 

a\ 

6 

N 

^ 

v6 

.2  MS 

M 

M 

N 

IN 

« 

N 

C^ 

M 

M 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

o^ 

' 

•s 

.iS 

.Em 

!«r'^     . 

VO 

N 

00 

J> 

N 

0 

Tj- 

CO 

VO 

0 

VO 

VO 

CO 

^^  S 

HI 

M 

^ 

u-J 

<o 

00 

c^ 

0 

C4 

0 

HI 

CO 

CO 

6 

0^ 

g 
00 

9 

7j- 

CO 

0 
<n. 

CO 

cp 

HI 

■^1 

c^ 

CS 

N 

N 

M 

CM 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

^ 

w 

.s 

j2  J 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

•£Si 

m 

0 

<J-) 

0 

10 

0 

"1 

0 

in 

0 

0 

o 

0 

•5(S 

c< 

ro 

CO 

Tj- 

Tj- 

10 

10 

VO 

VO 

!>. 

00 

o\ 

o__ 

w 

1-1 

1-1    • 

c°J 

00 

<o 

0 

-0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

a 

ro 

VO 

r>. 

00 

00 

t- 

CO 

VO 

CO 

t^ 

CM 

(S( 

»o 

ON 

N 

«n 

00 

H 

Tt- 

0 

<P 

9 

in 

N 

CM 

s  ?„-S 

6^ 

0 

6 

6 

6 

HI 

Hl 

c< 

N 

CO 

CO 

^ 

VO 

.2  WI3 

M 

M 

M 

H 

W 

M 

H 

H 

H 

HI 

HI 

0  S  rt 

015 

j3 

.=  ""31 

t^ 

0 

N 

VO 

0^ 

CO 

00 

•* 

0 

CO 

CM 

W 

00 

«W   « 

0 

10 

CO 

o> 

^ 

0 

N 

t^ 

0^ 

00 

in 

0 

0 

0 

Ti- 

op 

HI 

V^ 

op 

^ 

op 

M- 

9 

VO 

CM 

c^ 

sSs 

M 

M 

M 

IN 

N 

IN 

00 

CO 

^ 

in 

ir, 

VO 

00 

•  ^     rj 

H 

H 

M 

H 

w 

HI 

H 

w 

HI 

H 

HI 

H 

H 

«l 

«.» 

C/5 

1 

.2 

' 

i2  -J 

0 

<o 

0 

m 

0 

"0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

J>^ 

t^ 

00 

00 

a> 

a» 

0 

HI 

C^ 

CO 

-^ 

"0 

0 

HI 

HI 

M 

HI 

M 

H 

CM 

w 

*-•  .:; 

c°.i 

'■^  s§ 

10 

00 

CO 

0 

VO 

CO 

t^ 

in 

VO 

CM 

0 

VO 

Ov 

olc„ 

0 

(S 

T^ 

CO 

CO 

00 

00 

in 

a 

HI 

0 

00 

Tt- 

c  a  CO 

P  8  J 

in 

vp 

Ti- 

M 

^^ 

N 

t^ 

N 

VO 

HI 

in 

00 

CM 

N 

CO 

^ 

io 

io 

VO 

VO 

t^ 

f- 

CO 

CO 

00 

a> 

O^ 

J3 

S  "S) 

'r':^  c 

00 

•^ 

CO 

VO 

Ti- 

in 

vO 

vO 

Tl- 

Tt- 

HI 

VO 

in 

Sh  J, 

10 

00 

c< 

HI 

M 

Tt- 

CM 

VO 

t^ 

m 

HI 

■^ 

VO 

S  0-- 

0^ 

w 

H 

Oi 

VO 

iN 

op 

CO 

Op 

CO 

00 

N 

VO 

-  Ss 

fl 

V 

io 

in 

VO 

C-^ 

c^ 

CO 

00 

a^ 

6^ 

6 

6 

53 

M 

H 

u5 

.5 

S  V. 

10 

0 

"0 

0 

•0 

0 

m 

0 

in 

0 

in 

0 

in 

■^^ 

M 

M 

<^ 

0< 

CO 

CO 

■^ 

■^ 

in 

in 

VO 

VO 

K 

S_\  pcrtni^swn  of  /he  •' Srrci  and Shippi, 
LOOKING    UP   THE    LAXTERX    OF   THE    XEEDLES    LIGHTHOUSE. 


/>_>  ie:ii  it  \j  of  1/t  nj  1    Lliance  Bios.  &■  Co.,  Lta. 
FIXED   APPARATUS   OF  THE    FOURTH    ORDER   FOR  SARAWAK. 

The  focal  distance  is  250  millimetres,  and  the  diameter  of  lantern  inside 
glazing  6  feet  j%  inches. 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  53 

calculating  methods  adopted,  is  somewhat  misleading.  So 
far  as  Great  Britain  is  concerned,  the  practice  of  setting  out 
the  candle-power  of  any  light  in  the  official  list  has  been 
abandoned,  the  authorities  merely  stating  that  such  and 
such  a  light  is  of  great  power.  The  United  States  and 
Canada,  on  the  other  hand,  indicate  the  approximate  candle- 
power. 

By  combining  and  arranging  the  integral  parts  of  the 
optical  apparatus,  the  lighthouse  engineer  is  able  to  accom- 
plish many  astonishing  results.  Thus,  while  the  various 
types  generally  follow  accepted  broad  lines,  coinciding  with 
the  order  which  they  represent,  here  and  there  some  very 
striking  divergences  are  made.  The  Bell  Rock  light  is 
perhaps  the  most  interesting  example  in  this  direction.  It 
was  designed  by  Messrs.  D.  and  T.  Stevenson,  and  built 
by  Messrs.  Chance  Brothers  and  Co.  The  light  is  alter- 
nating, the  colours  being  white  and  red.  Externally  the 
optical  apparatus  appears  to  be  bizarre,  yet  it  is  one  of  the 
most  perfect  which  has  ever  been  installed.  In  its  design 
and  construction  almost  all  the  known  lighthouse  optical 
elements  are  incorporated,  including  the  equiangular  re- 
fractor, the  reflecting  prism,  the  double-reflecting  prism,  and 
the  dioptric  mirror.  Another  noteworthy  fact  is  that,  by  an 
exceedingly  ingenious  arrangement,  the  absorption  of  the 
rays  by  the  glass  used  in  producing  the  red  flashes  is  neutral- 
ized to  such  a  vast  degree  that  the  white  and  red  flashes  are 
of  equal  intensity. 

The  subsidiary  light  is  another  striking  feature  which  the 
lighthouse  engineer  has  introduced.  For  instance,  a  light 
may  be  shown  from  a  dangerous  reef,  and  give  the  mariner 
all  the  warning  desired.  But  some  distance  away  may  lurk 
another  isolated  rock,  which  it  is  just  as  imperative  to  indi- 
cate, and  yet  on  which  another  tower  cannot  be  erected. 
This  necessity  is  met  by  the  subsidiary  light.  A  portion  of 
the  light  from  the  main  apparatus  is  deflected  and  thrown  to 
the  desired  spot  by  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  the  prisms. 
On  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  at  Stornoway,  a  stream  of 
light  used  to  be  deflected  from  the  lantern  in  a  vertical 


54 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


% 


A  a.  kolophote  and 
BEFecTiMQ  PRismi  ro» 

UON  LIGHT  FISCO  IN 


I   I   I 


THESE  RErLfCTORS  Art£  FLAC 
WITH   TMeil?   FACES '^  TOWARD  J    T« 
ARC  TO  B£    ll-LUMINATCO 


KATS  Of  TiEa   LIGHT 


Fig.  14. — The  Means  whereby  the  Rays  are  deflected  from 
THE  Main  Light  to  form  a  Subsidiary  Light. 

{By  periitission  of  Messrs.  Chance  Bros,  and  Co,,  Ltd.) 


i 


THE  LIGHT  AND  ILLUMINANTS  55 

direction  down  the  tower,  and  there  bent  at  right  angles,  to 
be  thrown  through  a  lower  window  and  fall  upon  a  prism 
placed  on  the  crest  of  a  rock  several  hundred  feet  distant. 
From  the  deck  of  a  vessel,  the  effect  of  the  light  striking  the 
prism  was  akin  to  that  produced  by  a  beacon.  Similarly  in 
the  case  of  St.  Catherine's  light  in  the  Isle  of  Wight :  a  portion 
of  the  light,  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted  over  the  area 
on  the  landward  side,  is  carried  vertically  down  the  tower 
by  a  disposal  of  lenses  and  prisms,  and  is  projected  horizon- 
tally through  a  small  window,  after  being  coloured  into  a 
red  ray  by  passing  through  some  glass  of  the  desired  tint,  to 
mark  a  danger  spot  some  distance  away.  This  method, 
however,  is  not  favoured  now,  as  the  peril  can  be  more 
efficiently  marked  by  means  of  an  independent  beacon,  a 
system  which  has  become  feasible  owing  to  the  vast  improve- 
ments that  have  been  made  in  automatic  lights  requiring  no 
attention  for  several  weeks  or  months  at  a  time. 

But  in  those  instances  where  the  latter  expedient  is  not 
adopted,  the  practice  is  to  cover  the  danger  with  a  ray  thrown 
from  an  entirely  different  light.  When  the  present  Eddy- 
stone  tower  was  completed,  a  "  low-light  room,"  as  it  is 
called,  was  incorporated,  and  a  low-powered  light  was  thrown 
from  two  Argand  burners  and  reflectors  through  a  window 
to  mark  a  dangerous  reef  some  three  miles  distant.  But 
perhaps  the  best  example  of  a  subsidiary  light  is  that  which 
was  carried  out  by  Messrs.  Chance  in  connection  with  the 
Cap  de  Couedie  lighthouse.  In  this  instance  two  dangers 
had  to  be  indicated  in  a  subsidiary  manner,  one  being 
covered  with  a  red,  the  other  with  a  green,  ray.  The  red 
sector  marks  a  danger  spot  known  as  Lipson's  Reef,  lying 
8|  miles  distant,  while  the  green  light  indicates  Casuarina 
Island,  if  miles  away.  This  installation,  it  may  be  pointed 
out,  has  proved  highly  successful,  and  certainly  is  very 
economical. 

There  is  another  point  which  deserves  mention — the 
duration  of  the  flash  in  a  revolving  light.  There  was  con- 
siderable discussion  and  difference  of  opinion  upon  this 
question  some   years    ago.     It   was   maintained   that   the 


56  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

shorter  the  duration  of  the  flash,  and  the  more  rapidly  it 
were  thrown,  the  better  it  would  be  for  the  mariner.  The 
Scottish  engineers  realized  the  significance  of  this  problem, 
and,  despite  the  hostile  criticism  of  contemporary  engineers, 
adopted  a  specific  principle  which  was  to  give  a  flash  of 
two  and  three-quarter  seconds'  duration.  Subsequently  it 
was  reduced  to  one  second.  The  introduction  of  the  mercury 
float  enabled  the  optical  apparatus  to  be  revolved  faster, 
and  also  facilitated  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  panels 
or  faces,  so  that  ultimately  the  Scottish  engineers  reduced 
the  flash  to  one  of  four-tenths  of  a  second. 

When  Mr.  Bourdelles  devised  the  mercury  float  which 
enabled  rotation  to  be  accelerated,  the  French  authorities 
rushed  to  the  opposite  extreme.  They  reduced  the  faces 
to  four,  and  arranged  for  the  apparatus  to  be  revolved  at  a 
high  speed,  so  that  the  duration  of  the  flash  was  only  one- 
tenth  of  a  second  at  rapidly-recurring  intervals.  This  type 
of  light  was  called  the  feu-eclair,  and  was  adopted  as  a 
result  of  prolonged  laboratory  investigation.  But  this  was 
an  instance  where  laboratory  experiments  and  scientific 
reasoning  failed  to  go  hand  in  glove  with  practical  experience 
and  navigation,  where  the  mariner  has  to  contend  with  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  weather.  The  seafarer  expressed  his 
opinion  of  the  one-tenth  of  a  second  flash  in  uncomplimentary 
terms,  displaying  an  indifferent  appreciation  of  artificially- 
produced  sheet-lightning. 

Eventually  there  was  a  general  agreement,  among  all  those 
countries  which  had  investigated  the  problem  closely,  that  a 
flash  of  about  three-tenths  of  a  second  was  the  most  satis- 
factory, and  this  has  since  become  tacitly  standardized. 
The  French  authorities  recognized  the  fallacy  of  their  idea, 
and  soon  came  into  line  with  the  other  countries. 


CHAPTER    IV 

FOG-SIGNALS 

Notwithstanding  the  wonderful  ingenuity  that  is  displayed 
in  the  concentration  of  light  into  powerful  beams,  these  all 
count  for  nothing  when  fog  settles  upon  the  sea.  The  ray  of 
1,000,000  candle-power  is  almost  as  futile  then  as  the  glimmer 
from  a  tallow  dip. 

Fog  is  the  peril  of  the  sea  which  the  mariner  dreads  more 
than  any  other.  The  blanket  of  mist,  descending  upon  the 
water,  not  only  shuts  everything  from  sight,  but  deadens 
every  sound  as  well.  The  sea  is  absolutely  calm,  so  that 
no  intimation  of  danger  ahead  is  conveyed  by  the  breaking 
of  the  waves  upon  rock,  shoal,  sandbank,  or  iron-bound 
coast. 

It  is  in  times  of  fog  that  the  navigator  must  be  given  the 
greatest  protection.  As  this  is  impossible  to  accomplish 
visually,  appeal  must  be  made  to  his  ear.  In  the  early  days 
of  lighthouse  engineering  the  methods  of  conveying  audible 
warning  were  very  crude.  The  discharge  of  a  gun  was  the 
most  popular,  but  it  was  neither  serviceable  nor  reliable,  and 
was  made  upon  somewhat  haphazard  lines.  Thus,  in  the 
case  of  a  dangerous  headland  on  the  North  American  coast, 
which  the  Boston  steamer  had  to  round  on  its  journey,  the 
keepers  mounted  guard  at  the  probable  time  of  the  vessel's 
arrival  off  this  point.  They  listened  eagerly  for  the  steamer's 
whistle,  and  when  it  came  screaming  over  the  water  they 
began  hurriedly  firing  a  carronade,  keeping  up  the  blank- 
cartridge  bombardment  until  another  shriek  told  them  that 
those  on  the  vessel  had  heard  their  signals.  Sometimes  the 
whistle  was  heard  from  a  distance  of  six  miles ;  at  others 
from  not  more  than  two  miles  away.  It  depended  upon 
circumstances.     Obviously,  such    a   primitive  system   was 

57 


58  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

attended  with  considerable  danger,  as  an  accident  was  liable 
to  happen  to  the  men  in  their  feverish  haste  to  load  and 
discharge  the  gun,  while  the  plight  of  the  boat  was  far  from 
being  enviable  at  times. 

In  the  early  days  every  lighthouse  tower  was  provided 
with  a  heavy  bell.  Indeed,  the  ponderous  dome  of  metal 
projecting  from  the  lantern  gallery  was  considered  indis- 
pensable. The  bell  varied  in  weight  from  1,200  to  2,240 
pounds,  was  fitted  with  a  massive  clapper,  and  when  struck 
emitted  a  deep  musical  note.  In  order  to  enable  the  sea- 
farer to  gain  some  idea  of  his  whereabouts,  the  fog-signals 
were  given  a  sound-characteristic  somewhat  upon  the  lines 
of  those  in  connection  with  the  light.  Thus,  one  lighthouse 
would  give  one  stroke  every  ten  seconds  ;  another  would 
give  two  strokes  in  quick  succession,  followed  by  a  long 
silence,  and  so  on.  This  system  suffers  from  the  severe 
handicap  that  the  sound  does  not  travel  very  far  during 
foggy  weather. 

Another  ingenious  engineer  recommended  the  utilization 
of  the  locomotive  whistle,  giving  a  high-toned,  ear-piercing 
shriek,  but  the  same  objection  a^  attended  the  use  of  the 
bell  prevailed  :  the  sound  could  not  be  heard  more  than 
a  short  distance  away.  The  British  lighthouse  authorities 
submitted  the  idea  to  a  series  of  searching  investigations  to 
ascertain  its  possibilities,  but  eventually  were  compelled  to 
conclude  that  it  was  not  superior  to,  if  as  good  as,  the  other 
systems  then  in  vogue.  The  United  States  authorities,  as  a 
result  of  their  independent  experiments,  expressed  a  similar 
opinion ;  but  in  Canada  practical  application  gave  this 
whistle  a  favourable  verdict. 

Rockets  also  have  been  adopted,  and  are  highly  success- 
ful. Indeed,  this  method  of  conveying  audible  warning 
prevails  still  in  many  countries.  The  practicability  of  such 
a  means  of  throwing  sound  over  a  wide  area  was  advanced 
by  Sir  Richard  Collinson,  when  Deputy-Master  of  Trinity 
House,  and  his  idea  comprised  the  insertion  of  a  gun-cotton 
charge,  timed  to  explode  at  a  given  height,  in  the  head  of 
the   rocket.      The   height   could   be   varied   up   to    about 


Photo,  Paul,  PeJtzajice. 


THE   SIRENS   OF   THE    LIZARD. 


Owing  to  the  importance  of  the  Lizard  Station  and  the  fact  that  the  coast  often  is  obscured  by  fog, 
a  powerful  fog-signalling  station  is  imperative. 


FOG-SIGNALS  59 

1,000  feet,  and  the  weight  of  the  charge  fluctuated  according 
to  requirements.  The  rocket  system  was  tested  very 
severely,  and  in  some  instances  the  report  was  heard  as 
many  as  twenty-five  miles  away.  It  received  the  approba- 
tion of  Professor  Tyndall,  and,  although  superior  methods  of 
signalling  have  been  devised  since,  there  remain  one  or  two 
lighthouse  stations  where  it  is  considered  to  be  the  most 
satisfactory  fog-signalling  device,  notably  the  station  on  the 
island  of  Heligoland,  where  the  rocket  is  hurled  into  the  air 
to  explode  at  a  height  of  nearly  700  feet. 

In  many  lighthouses  the  detonation  of  gun-cotton  con- 
stitutes the  means  of  conveying  warning  to  passing  vessels, 
but  is  accomplished  in  a  different  manner.  The  charge, 
instead  of  being  sent  into  the  air  to  be  exploded,  is  attached 
to  a  special  device  which  is  supported  upon  a  simple  frame 
at  a  point  above  the  lantern,  so  that  no  damage  may  be 
inflicted  upon  the  glass  of  the  latter  from  the  concussion. 
The  apparatus  is  fitted  with  a  safety  device  which  prevents 
premature  explosion,  so  that  the  keeper  is  preserved  from 
personal  injury,  and,  unless  culpable  negligence  is  mani- 
fested, the  charge  cannot  be  ignited  until  it  has  been  raised 
to  its  designed  position.  The  report  is  of  great  volume, 
and  as  a  rule  can  be  heard  a  considerable  distance  ;  but  in 
this,  as  in  all  other  cases,  the  atmosphere  plays  many  strange 
tricks.  Still,  it  has  not  been  superseded  yet  for  isolated 
sea-rock  lighthouses,  such  as  the  Eddystone,  Skerryvore, 
and  Bell  Rock,  where  there  is  lack  of  adequate  space  for 
the  installation  of  any  other  equally  efficient  fog-signalling 
facilities. 

In  the  early  seventies  an  American  investigator,  Mr.  C.  L. 
Daboll,  contrived  an  entirely  new  system,  which  developed 
into  the  foundation  of  one  of  the  most  successful  fog-sig- 
nalling devices  for  lighthouses  which  has  been  discovered — 
the  siren.  The  Daboll  invention  was  a  huge  trumpet,  re- 
calling a  mammoth  phonograph  horn.  It  was  17  feet  in 
length,  and  its  mouth  was  38  inches  in  diameter.  In  the 
lower  end  of  this  trumpet — the  throat — was  placed  a  tongue 
of  steel  measuring  10  inches  in  length   and  secured  at  one 


6o  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

end  to  form  a  reed.  It  was  blown  by  air  compressed  in  a 
reservoir  to  the  desired  degree,  and  then  permitted  to  escape 
through  the  trumpet.  The  mad  rush  of  the  expanding  air 
through  the  constricted  passage  set  the  reed  vibrating 
violently,  causing  the  emission  of  a  penetrating,  discordant 
bellow.  When  Daboll  commenced  his  experiments,  he  suf- 
fered from  the  lack  of  a  suitable  mechanical  means  for 
compressing  the  air,  and  made  shift  with  a  donkey  for  this 
purpose  until  the  hot-air  engine  was  improved,  when  the 
latter  was  substituted. 

Trinity  House  adopted  the  idea  and  found  it  serviceable  ; 
but  the  Canadian  authorities,  after  four  years'  experiment, 
dissented  from  this  view,  remarking  that  the  trumpet  was 
expensive  to  maintain,  unreliable  in  working,  and  liable  to 
break  down  when  most  urgently  needed.  In  fact,  they 
characterized  the  Daboll  trumpets  which  they  had  installed 
as  "  sources  of  danger  instead  of  aids  to  navigation." 

From  the  trumpet  to  the  siren  was  not  a  very  big  step. 
The  history  of  the  latter's  invention  is  somewhat  obscure, 
but  it  was  brought  before  the  United  States  Government  in 
a  primitive  form.  The  American  engineers,  recognizing  its 
latent  possibilities,  took  it  up,  and  endeavoured  to  improve 
it  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  it  suitable  for  lighthouse 
work.  Their  efforts  were  only  partially  successful.  The 
solution  of  the  many  difficulties  attending  its  perfection  was 
effected  in  Great  Britain  by  Professor  Frederick  Hale  Holmes, 
whose  magneto-electric  machine  brought  electricity  within 
reach  of  the  lighthouse  as  an  illuminant,  and  it  was  due  to 
the  efforts  of  this  scientist  that  the  siren  became  one  of  the 
most  efficient  sound-producing  instruments  which  have  been 
discovered  for  this  class  of  work. 

The  reason  that  made  Professor  Holmes  bring  his  energies 
and  knowledge  to  bear  upon  this  subject  was  somewhat 
curious.  The  siren  in  its  first  form  made  its  way  from  the 
United  States  to  Great  Britain.  The  British  Admiralty 
realized  the  power  and  penetration  of  its  sound,  and  forth- 
with adopted  it  in  the  navy,  operating  it  by  steam  instead 
of  by  air.     At  this  there  arose  a  great  outcry  from  the  mer- 


FOG-SIGNALS 


6i 


cantile  marine.  Captains  argued  that  the  similarity  of  the 
signals  confused  and  often  misled  them,  as  they  could  not 
tell  in  the  fog  whether  the  sound  proceeded  from  a  warship 
or  a  lighthouse.  The  Board  of  Trade  was  forced  to  inter- 
vene, but,  as  it  had  no  jurisdiction  over  the  Admiralty,  it 
sought  to  extricate  itself  from  an  awkward  situation  by 
inviting  Professor  Holmes  to  perfect  a  siren  which  would 
emit  a  distinctive  sound.  His  efforts  were  crowned  with 
complete  success. 

Professor  Holmes  exhibited  his  wonderful  device  at  the 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1867.  He  installed  it  in  working  order, 
and  the  visitors  displayed  an  anxiety  to  hear  it.  It  was 
brought  into  action,  and  those  around  never  forgot  the  ex- 


FiG.  15. — The  Fixed  (A)  and  Revolving  (B)  Parts  of  the 

Siren. 


perience.  It  was  the  most  diabolical  ear-splitting  noise 
which  had  been  heard,  and,  apprehensive  that  serious  results 
might  arise  from  its  demonstration  when  the  buildings  were 
thronged  with  sight-seers,  the  authorities  refused  to  permit 
it  to  be  sounded  again.  The  humorous  illustrated  papers 
did  not  suffer  such  a  golden  opportunity  to  escape.  Gro- 
tesque and  laughable  cartoons  appeared  depicting  the  curious 
effects  produced  by  the  blast  of  the  instrument,  one  show- 
ing the  various  statues  being  frightened  off  their  pedestals 
proving  exceptionally  popular. 

The  siren  in  its  simplest  form  is  an  enlarged  edition  of 
the  "  Deviline  "  toy  whistle.  There  is  a  Daboll  trumpet 
with  a  small  throat,  in  which  is  placed  horizontally,  not  a 


62  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

reed,  but  a  metal  disc,  so  as  to  fill  the  whole  circular  space 
of  the  throat.  The  sheet  of  metal  is  pierced  with  a  number 
of  radial  slits.  Behind  this  disc  is  a  second  plate  of  a  similar 
character,  and  likewise  pierced  with  radial  slits  of  the  same 
size,  shape  and  number  ;  but  whereas  the  first  disc  is  fixed^ 
the  second  is  mounted  on  a  spindle.  The  free  disc  rotates 
at  high  speed,  so  that  the  twelve  jets  of  air  which  are  driven 
through  the  throat  are  interrupted  intermittently  by  the 
blanks  of  the  revolving  disc  coming  over  the  openings  in  the 
fixed  disc,  while  when  the  two  slits  are  in  line  the  air  has 
a  free  passage.  If  the  revolving  disc  completes  3,000  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  and  there  are  twelve  slits  in  the  discs, 
then  a  total  of  36,000  vibrations  per  minute  is  produced 
while  the  instrument  is  in  operation.  The  speed  of  the 
revolving  disc,  as  well  as  the  number  and  size  of  the  openings, 
varies  according  to  the  siz;e  and  class  of  the  siren  ;  but  in 
any  case  an  intensely  powerful,  dense  and  penetrating 
musical  tone  is  emitted,  which  can  be  heard  a  considerable 
distance  away.  The  blast  of  a  high-powered  large  siren 
has  been  heard  at  a  distance  of  twenty  to  thirty  miles  in 
clear  weather,  though  of  course  in  thick  weather  its  range 
is  reduced. 

While  Professor  Holmes  was  experimenting  with  this 
device,  another  investigator,  Mr.  Slight,  of  Trinity  House, 
was  wrestling  with  the  same  problem.  Indeed,  he  may  be 
described  as  the  inventor  of  the  modern  siren.  Although 
he  effected  only  an  apparently  slight  modification,  it  was 
the  touch  which  rendered  the  instrument  perfect,  while  it 
also  removed  the  possibility  of  a  breakdown  at  a  critical 
moment,  as  he  rendered  the  moving  part  freer  in  its  work- 
ing and  eliminated  the  severe  strains  to  which  it  was  sub- 
jected. The  improvement  was  appreciated  by  Professor 
Holmes,  who  adopted  it  immediately. 

While  these  indefatigable  efforts  were  in  progress,  in- 
genious attempts  were  made  to  press  Nature  herself  into 
operation.  As  is  well  known,  there  are  many  "  blowing- 
holes  "  distributed  throughout  the  world,  where  the  water 
by  erosion  has  produced  a  long,  narrow  cavern  in  the  base 


FOG-SIGNALS  63 

of  a  rock,  with  a  constricted  outlet  into  the  outer  air.  The 
waves,  rushing  into  the  cave,  compress  the  air  within,  which, 
in  its  escape  at  high  velocity  through  the  small  vent,  pro- 
duces a  bellowing  sound.  It  was  this  curious  phenomenon 
which  gave  the  Wolf  Rock  its  name.  General  Hartmann 
Bache,  of  the  United  States  Engineers,  attempted  in  1858 
to  make  use  of  a  blowing-hole  on  one  of  the  Farallon  Isles, 
lying  forty  miles  off  the  entrance  to  San  Francisco  Bay.  A 
chimney  was  built  with  bricks  above  the  orifice,  through 
which  the  air  compressed  by  the  waves  below  made  its 
escape,  and  on  top  of  this  shaft  a  locomotive  whistle  was 
placed.  The  first  effort  was  a  dead  failure,  because  the 
force  of  the  rush  of  air  was  so  great  that  it  carried  away  the 
chimney ;  but  in  the  second  attempt  success  was  achieved, 
and  an  excellent  automatic  whistle  blared  out  night  and  day 
almost  continuously  and  was  audible  for  some  distance  out 
to  sea.  The  only  drawback  was  that  in  foggy  weather, 
when  the  most  intense  sound  was  required,  the  signal  was 
dumb  owing  to  the  smoothness  of  the  water.  This  novel 
signal  was  maintained  for  some  time  and  then  was  super- 
seded by  a  powerful  siren. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  fog-signalling  installations  in 
service  is  that  on  the  bald  formidable  hump  of  rock  lying 
in  the  estuary  of  the  Clyde,  known  as  Ailsa  Craig.  For  years 
this  rock  constituted  a  terrible  menace  to  the  crowded 
shipping  of  this  important  marine  thoroughfare,  and  its 
victims  were  numerous.  While  the  Commissioners  of 
Northern  Lighthouses  mitigated  its  terrors  as  far  as  pos- 
sible by  the  provision  of  a  powerful  light,  they  recognized 
the  fact  that  a  visual  warning  did  not  meet  the  situation 
completely.  But  the  installation  of  a  fog-signal  was  a 
somewhat  peculiar  problem,  owing  to  the  configuration  of 
the  rock.  A  single  station  would  not  meet  requirements, 
because  it  was  necessary  to  throw  the  warning  from  both 
sides  of  the  obstruction.  The  provision  of  two  sound-stations 
would  have  been  an  expensive  matter,  even  if  it  had  been 
feasible,  which  it  was  not,  owing  to  the  precipitous  nature 
of  the  cliffs. 


64  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

An  ingenious  solution  was  advanced  by  Mr.  Charles 
Ingrey,  C.E.  He  proposed  to  erect  a  central  power-station 
and  to  control  the  sounding  of  two  sirens,  placed  on  opposite 
sides  of-the  island,  therefrom,  the  compressed  air  being  led 
through  underground  piping.  The  plans  were  submitted  to 
Messrs.  Stevenson,  the  engineers  to  the  Northern  Lighthouse 
Board,  who,  after  examining  the  proposal  thoroughly,  gave 
it  their  approval.  But  when  it  came  to  obtaining  the  sanc- 
tion for  the  requisite  expenditure  from  the  Board  of  Trade, 
that  august  body,  despite  the  fact  that  the  project  had  been 
investigated  and  had  received  the  approbation  of  the 
engineers  to  the  Northern  Lighthouse  Commissioners,  de- 
clined to  permit  public  money  to  be  expended  upon  an 
untried  scheme.  Such  is  the  way  in  which  pioneering  effort 
and  ingenuity  are  stifled  by  Government  departments. 

Many  another  engineer  would  have  abandoned  the  proj- 
ect after  such  a  rebuff,  but  Mr.  Ingrey  without  any  delay 
laid  down  a  complete  installation  upon  the  lines  he  contem- 
plated on  the  island  of  Pladda,  where  a  Holmes  fog-horn 
was  in  service.  With  the  aid  of  a  workman  whom  he  took 
from  Glasgow,  the  light-keepers  and  some  farm  labourers, 
this  trial  installation  was  completed,  the  piping  being  carried 
round  the  island  from  the  air-compressing  plant  to  the  fog- 
signal.  The  work  occupied  about  a  fortnight,  and  then, 
everything  being  ready  to  convince  the  sceptical  Board  of 
Trade,  the  inspecting  engineers  were  treated  to  a  compre- 
hensive and  conclusive  demonstration.  They  were  satisfied 
with  what  they  saw,  appreciated  the  reliability  of  the  idea 
and  gave  the  requisite  sanction.  Forthwith  the  Ails  a  Craig 
Island  installation  was  put  in  hand  and  duly  completed. 

This  plant  possesses  many  ingenious  features.  As  the 
light  is  derived  from  gas  distilled  from  crude  oil,  a  small 
gas-making  plant  is  installed  on  the  island,  and  this  is  used 
also  for  driving  a  battery  of  five  eight-horse-power  gas-engines 
— four  are  used  at  a  time,  the  fifth  being  in  reserve — to 
supply  the  thirty-horse-power  demanded  to  operate  the 
fog-signal.  The  energy  thus  developed  drives  two  sets  of 
powerful  air-compressors,  the  four  cylinders  of  which  have 


il 


THE   ACETYLENE    FOG-GUX. 

The  latest  ingenious  device  for  giving  both  audible  and  visual 
warning  automatically. 


tOe'         tats         tsse 


mm 


X 

t-.  ^^ 

i"    rt 

> 

o    M    . 

<J 

(2 

•il 

2^ 

< 

■f  S    ( 

W 

8 

S 

w 

H 

"S 

FOG-SIGNALS  65 

a  bore  of  10  inches  by  a  stroke  of  20  inches,  the  air  being 
compressed  to  80  pounds  per  square  inch  and  stored  in  two 
large  air-receivers  which  hold  194  cubic  feet.  From  this 
reservoir  pipes  buried  in  a  trench  excavated  from  the  solid 
rock  extend  to  the  two  trumpets,  placed  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  of  the  island  respectively.  The  length  of  piping 
on  the  north  side  is  3,400  feet,  and  on  the  south  side  2,500 
feet.  At  places  where  the  pipe  makes  a  dip,  owing  to  the 
configuration  of  the  rock,  facilities  are  provided  to  draw  off 
any  water  which  may  collect.  Extreme  care  had  to  be  dis- 
played in  connecting  the  lengths  of  piping,  so  that  there 
might  be  no  leakage,  in  which  event,  of  course,  the  pressure 
of  the  air  would  drop  and  thereby  incapacitate  the  signal. 

Each  signal  is  mounted  in  a  domed  house  built  of  con- 
crete, the  mouth  of  the  trumpet  extending  from  the  crown 
of  the  roof.  Within  the  house  is  an  air-receiver  9  feet  in 
height  by  4I  feet  in  diameter,  of  about  140  cubic  feet 
capacity,  which  receives  the  compressed  air  transmitted 
through  the  piping  from  the  compressing-station.  It  also 
contains  the  automatic  apparatus  whereby  the  signal  is 
brought  into  action  at  the  stipulated  intervals,  so  as  to 
produce  the  requisite  sound  characteristic.  This  is  a  self- 
winding clockwork  mechanism  which  admits  and  cuts  off 
the  supply  of  air  to  the  trumpets,  its  chief  feature  being 
that  the  clock  is  wound  up  by  the  compressed  air  itself,  so 
that  it  is  entirely  free  from  human  control.  However,  as  a 
breakdown  even  with  the  best -designed  and  most-carefully- 
tended  machinery  cannot  be  circumvented  entirely,  there  is 
a  duplicate  electrical  mechanism,  also  automatically  con- 
trolled from  the  power-generating  station,  the  electric  cables 
for  which  are  laid  in  the  pipe  trenches.  This  acts  as  an 
emergency  control. 

The  two  signals  are  not  sounded  simultaneously ;  neither 
are  they  alike  nor  of  the  same  tone.  The  north  signal  gives 
a  single  blast  of  high  tone,  lasting  five  seconds,  and  then  is 
silent  for  175  seconds.  On  the  south  side  the  siren  gives  a 
double  note,  although  there  are  three  blasts — viz.,  high,  low, 
high — corresponding  to  the  letter  R  of  the  Morse  code.    The 

5 


66  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

notes  are  sounded  for  two  seconds,  with  similar  intervening 
periods  of  silence,  and  silence  for  170  seconds  between  the 
groups.  The  complete  signal  from  the  two  stations  is  given 
once  in  three  minutes,  the  north  signal  commencing  to  sound 
ninety  seconds  after  the  south  signal  has  ceased.  The  high 
note  corresponds  to  the  fourth  E  in  the  musical  compass, 
there  being  38,400  vibrations  per  minute  ;  while  the  low 
note  is  tuned  to  the  third  D  in  the  musical  compass,  with 
16,800  vibrations  per  minute.  The  notes  are  purposely 
timed  more  than  an  octave  apart  and  made  discordant,  as 
thereby  the  sound  is  more  likely  to  attract  attention  and 
to  be  readily  distinguished. 

About  eighteen  minutes  are  required  to  bring  the  appara- 
tus into  operation — that  is,  to  start  compressing  and  to  raise 
the  pressure  of  the  air  to  the  requisite  degree — but,  as  fogs 
descend  upon  the  Clyde  with  startling  suddenness,  the 
signals  may  be  started  within  five  minutes  of  the  fog-alarm. 
The  air-reservoirs  are  kept  charged  to  the  working  pressure, 
the  machinery  being  run  once  or  twice  for  a  short  time  every 
week  for  this  purpose  and  to  keep  the  plant  in  working 
order. 

Up  to  this  time  it  had  been  the  practice  to  place  the  siren 
in  close  proximity  to  the  air-compressing  machinery,  but 
the  installation  at  Ails  a  Craig  proves  conclusively  that  this 
is  not  essential  to  success  ;  also  it  demonstrates  the  fact 
that  a  number  of  signals  can  be  operated  reliably  and  effec- 
tively from  a  central  station.  Indeed,  this  Scottish  plant 
aroused  such  widespread  interest  that  the  Pulsometer  En- 
gineering Company  of  Reading,  who  had  acquired  Professor 
Holmes's  patents  and  who  carried  out  the  above  installa- 
tion, received  several  inquiries  from  abroad  with  regard  to 
its  suitability  for  similar  situations.  In  one  instance  the 
compressed  air  was  to  be  transmitted  for  a  distance  of  nearly 
four  miles. 

While  the  siren  has  been  adopted  and  found  adequate  by 
the  majority  of  nations,  the  Canadian  Government  has  in- 
stalled a  far  more  powerful  instrument  upon  the  River  St. 
Lawrence,  as  the  ordinary  siren  signals  originally  estab- 


FOG-SIGNALS  S-j 

lished  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  although  of  great  power, 
were  found  to  be  inadequate.  The  new  apparatus,  which 
is  known  as  the  "  diaphone,"  gives  an  extraordinarily 
powerful  sound.  It  comprises  a  cylindrical  chamber,  in  the 
walls  of  which  are  cut  a  number  of  parallel  slits.  Concen- 
trically disposed  within  the  chamber  is  a  cylindrical  hollow 
piston,  with  similar  slits  and  a  flange  at  one  end,  the  whole 
being  enclosed  in  an  outer  casing.  Air  under  pressure  is 
admitted  into  the  outer  casing,  and  drives  the  piston  back- 
wards and  forwards  with  great  rapidity.  The  result  is  that 
the  air  effects  its  escape  through  the  orifices,  when  they 
come  into  line,  in  intermittent  puffs. 

While  the  broad  principle  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  con- 
ventional siren,  the  main  difference  is  that  in  the  latter 
there  is  a  rotary  motion,  whereas  in  the  diaphone  the  action 
is  reciprocating.  The  great  advantage  of  the  latter  is  that 
all  the  vibrations  are  synchronous,  owing  to  the  symmetrical 
disposition  of  the  slits,  and  consequently  the  note  produced 
is  very  pure.  The  mechanism  is  so  devised  that  the  piston's 
motion  is  controlled  to  a  nicety,  and  the  sound  is  constant. 
Experience  has  proved  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  by 
using  air  at  a  pressure  of  30  pounds  per  square  inch.  The 
sound  thus  produced  is  intensified  to  a  markedly  greater 
degree  by  means  of  a  resonator  properly  attuned. 

This  instrument  has  displaced  the  siren  among  the 
stations  upon  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  The  general  type 
of  apparatus  has  a  piston  4I  inches  in  diameter,  and  uses 
II  pounds  of  air  per  second  during  the  sounding  of  the  blast. 
But  at  more  important  stations  a  far  larger  and  more 
powerful  class  of  apparatus  is  used,  the  diaphone  at  Cape 
Race  having  a  piston  8|  inches  in  diameter  and  using  27  feet 
of  air  per  second  while  sounding.  This  does  not  indicate 
the  limit  of  size,  however,  since  the  builders  of  this  terrible 
noise-producer  are  experimenting  with  an  apparatus  having 
a  piston  14  inches  in  diameter.  The  sound  issuing  from 
such  a  huge  apparatus  would  be  almost  as  deafening  as  the 
report  of  a  big  gun  and  should  succeed  in  warning  a  mariner 
several  miles  away. 


68  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  atmosphere,  however,  plays  many  strange  pranks 
with  the  most  powerful  sound-producing  instruments.  To- 
day, for  instance,  a  fog-signal  may  be  heard  at  a  distance  of 
ten  miles  ;  to-morrow  it  will  fail  to  be  audible  more  than  a 
mile  away.  This  aberration  of  sound  is  extraordinary  and 
constitutes  one  of  the  unsolved  problems  of  science.  In- 
numerable investigations  have  been  made  with  the  object 
of  finding  the  cause  of  this  erratic  action,  but  no  conclusive 
explanation  has  been  forthcoming.  Another  strange  trick 
is  that,  while  a  sound  may  be  audible  at  distances  of  two 
and  four  miles  during  a  fog,  it  fails  to  strike  the  ear  at  three 
miles.  It  is  as  if  the  sound  struck  the  water  at  a  range  of 
two  miles,  bounded  high  into  the  air,  and  again  fell  upon 
the  water  at  four  miles,  giving  a  second  leap  to  hit  the  water 
again  farther  on,  in  much  the  same  way  as  a  thin  flat  stone, 
when  thrown  horizontally  into  the  water,  will  hop,  skip,  and 
jump  over  the  surface.  This  trick  renders  the  task  of  the 
lighthouse  engineer  additionally  exasperating  and  taxes  his 
ingenuity  to  the  utmost,  as  it  appears  to  baffle  completely 
any  attempt  towards  its  elimination. 

Recently  another  ingenious  and  novel  system  has  been 
perfected  by  Messrs.  D.  and  C.  Stevenson.  This  is  an  acety- 
lene gun  which  acts  automatically.  Hitherto  an  unattended 
fog-signal — except  the  bell-buoy  tolled  by  the  movement  of 
the  waves,  which  is  far  from  satisfactory,  or  the  whistling 
buoy,  which  is  operated  upon  the  same  lines  and  is  equally 
ineffective  except  at  very  short  range — has  found  little 
favour.  The  objections  to  the  bell  and  whistle  buoys  are 
the  faintness  of  the  sounds,  which  may  be  drowned  by  the 
noises  produced  on  the  ship  herself ;  while,  if  the  wind  is 
blowing  away  from  the  vessel,  she  may  pass  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  signal,  yet  outside  its  range.  Thus  it  will  be 
recognized  that  the  fog-gun  serves  to  fill  a  very  important 
gap  in  connection  with  the  warning  of  seafarers  during  thick 
weather. 

As  is  well  known,  even  a  small  charge  of  acetylene,  when 
fired,  will  produce  a  loud  report,  and  this  characteristic  of 
the  gas  induced  Messrs.  Stevenson  to  apply  it  to  a  fog- 


FOG-SIGNALS  69 

signal.  They  have  developed  the  automatic  acetylene 
system  of  lighting  to  a  very  high  degree  around  the  coasts 
of  Scotland,  and  there  are  now  more  than  twenty  lights  of 
this  class,  mostly  unattended,  in  operation,  some  of  which 
have  been  established  for  many  years.  These  lights  have 
proved  highly  satisfactory.  There  has  never  been  an  acci- 
dent, a  freedom  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  Moye's  system 
is  used,  wherein  the  possibilities  of  mishap  are  surmounted 
very  effectively.  Accordingly,  the  engineers  saw  no  reason 
why  a  similar  system  should  not  be  adapted  to  the  emission 
of  sound  instead  of  light  signals,  or,  if  desired,  of  both  simul- 
taneously. Their  experiments  have  been  crowned  with 
complete  success,  and,  as  the  gun  uses  no  more  gas  than 
would  be  consumed  if  a  flashing  light  system  were  used,  the 
cost  of  operation  is  very  low. 

The  general  features  of  the  acetylene  fog-gun  may  be  ob- 
served from  the  illustration  (facing  p.  64).  The  acetylene, 
dissolved  in  acetone,  is  contained  under  pressure  in  a  cylinder, 
and  thence  passes  through  a  reducing  valve  to  an  annular 
space,  where  it  is  ignited  by  an  electric  spark.  A  trumpet 
is  attached  to  the  firing  chamber,  so  that  the  sound  becomes 
intensified.  If  desired,  the  explosion  can  be  effected  at  the 
burner,  so  that,  in  addition  to  a  sound-signal,  a  flashing  light 
is  given. 

The  applications  vary  according  to  the  circumstances. 
Suppose  there  is  an  unlighted  bell-buoy  at  the  bar  of  a  port. 
Here  the  procedure  is  to  install  a  gun  and  light  combined, 
so  that  the  flash  of  the  explosion  may  give  visual  and  the 
report  audible  warning.  Or,  should  there  be  a  lighted  buoy 
already  in  position,  its  effectiveness  may  be  enhanced  by 
adding  the  gun,  the  detonation  alone  being  employed  for 
warning  purposes.  The  size  of  the  cylinder  containing  the 
dissolved  acetylene  may  be  varied,  so  that  renewal  need 
only  be  carried  out  once  in  one,  two,  or  more  months,  ac- 
cording to  conditions.  If  the  increasing  traffic  around  a 
certain  rock  demand  that  the  latter  should  be  marked,  a 
combined  sound  and  light  apparatus  can  be  installed.  It 
may  be  that  the  head  of  a  pier  which  is  accessible  only  at 


JO  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

certain  times,  or  a  beacon  which  can  be  reached  only  at 
rare  intervals,  may  require  improved  facilities.  In  this 
case  the  gun  can  be  set  up  and  a  cable  laid  to  a  convenient 
spot  which  may  be  approached  at  all  times  by  an  attendant. 
Then  the  latter,  by  the  movement  of  a  switch,  can  bring 
the  gun  instantly  into  action  upon  the  alarm  of  fog,  and  it 
will  keep  firing  at  the  set  intervals  until,  the  fog  lifting,  the 
gun  is  switched  off. 

In  some  cases,  where  the  apparatus  is  set  upon  a  lonely 
rock,  a  submarine  cable  may  be  laid  between  the  marked 
point  and  the  control-station.  The  cable  is  not  a  very 
costly  addition.  There  are  many  lights  where  wages  have 
to  be  paid  merely  for  a  man  to  bring  the  fog-signalling  bell 
machinery  into  action.  In  such  cases  a  fog-gun  can  be  in- 
stalled and  the  annual  cost  of  maintenance  decreased 
enormously,  thereby  enabling  the  outlay  on  the  gun  to  be 
recouped  within  a  very  short  time  ;  while  the  light  may  be 
improved  by  using  the  flashes,  so  that  the  warning  can  be 
rendered  more  distinctive. 

The  invention  is  also  applicable  to  lightships,  many  of 
which  are  manned  by  four  men  or  more  at  a  large  cost  per 
annum.  In  the  majority  of  cases  an  unattended  Stevenson 
lightship — such  as  described  in  another  chapter,  six  of  which 
are  in  use  around  the  coasts  of  Scotland,  and  which  give,  not 
only  a  first-class  light,  but,  by  the  aid  of  the  fog-signal  gun, 
can  be  made  to  give  an  excellent  fog-signal  as  well — offers  a 
means  of  reducing  the  heavy  maintenance  charges  arising 
in  connection  with  a  manned  light- vessel.  In  many  in- 
stances existing  lightships  can  be  converted  to  the  auto- 
matic system  and  completed  by  the  gun.  Each  case  must, 
of  course,  be  decided  upon  its  merits  as  regards  the  time 
the  gun  and  light  are  required  to  work  upon  a  single  charge 
of  acetylene,  but  there  are  no  insuperable  obstacles  to  its 
utilization. 

Of  course,  in  an  isolated  station  lying  perhaps  some  miles 
off  the  mainland,  it  may  be  necessary  to  keep  the  gun  going 
night  and  day  in  fog  and  in  clear  weather  alike.  In  this 
case,  naturally,  the  great  number  of  explosions  involves 


FOG-SIGNALS  71 

considerable  expense  ;  but  the  inventors  are  carrying  out 
experiments  with  a  view  to  switching  the  gun  on  and  off,  as 
required,  from  a  distant  point  by  means  of  wireless  teleg- 
raphy, so  as  to  effect  a  saving  in  the  expenditure  of  acety- 
lene when  there  is  no  need  on  account  of  fine  weather  to 
keep  the  gun  going.  Still,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
the  detonations  even  during  clear  weather  are  altogether 
abortive,  inasmuch  as  a  sound-signal  at  sea,  where  the 
atmosphere  has  a  long-distance-carrying  capacity  as  a  rule, 
in  conjunction  with  a  light,  draws  double  attention  to  a 
danger  spot.  Under  such  circumstances  the  waste  of 
acetylene  gas  during  periods  of  clear  weather  is  more 
apparent  than  real. 

The  contest  against  the  elements  is  still  being  waged, 
and  slowly  but  surely  engineering  science  is  improving  its 
position,  and  is  hopeful  of  rendering  audible  signals  as  com- 
pletely effective  as  those  of  a  visual  character. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  name  of  any  lighthouse  is  so 
familiar  throughout  the  English-speaking  world  as  the 
"  Eddystone."  Certainly  no  other  "  pillar  of  fire  by  night, 
of  cloud  by  day,"  can  offer  so  romantic  a  story  of  dogged 
engineering  perseverance,  of  heartrending  disappointments, 
disaster,  blasted  hopes,  and  brilliant  success. 

Standing  out  in  the  English  Channel,  about  sixty  miles 
east  of  the  Lizard,  is  a  straggling  ridge  of  rocks  which 
stretches  for  hundreds  of  yards  across  the  marine  thorough- 
fare, and  also  obstructs  the  western  approach  to  Plymouth 
Harbour.  But  at  a  point  some  nine  and  a  half  miles  south 
of  Rame  Head,  on  the  mainland,  the  reef  rises  somewhat 
abruptly  to  the  surface,  so  that  at  low-water  two  or  three 
ugly  granite  knots  are  bared,  which  tell  only  too  poignantly 
the  complete  destruction  they  could  wreak  upon  a  vessel 
which  had  the  temerity  or  the  ill  luck  to  scrape  over  them 
at  high-tide.  Even  in  the  calmest  weather  the  sea  curls 
and  eddies  viciously  around  these  stones  ;  hence  the  name 
"  Eddystones  "  is  derived. 

From  the  days  when  trading  vessels  first  used  the  English 
Channel  the  reef  has  been  a  spot  of  evil  fame.  How  many 
ships  escaped  the  perils  and  dangers  of  the  seven  seas  only 
to  come  to  grief  on  this  ridge  within  sight  of  home,  or  how 
many  lives  have  been  lost  upon  it,  will  never  be  known. 
Only  the  more  staggering  holocausts,  such  as  the  wreck  of 
the  Winchelsea,  stand  out  prominently  in  the  annals  of 
history,  but  these  serve  to  emphasize  the  terrible  character 
of  the  menace  offered.  The  port  of  Plymouth,  as  may  be 
supposed,  suffered  with  especial  severity. 

As  British  overseas  traffic  expanded,  the  idea  of  indica- 

72 


THE  EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE  73 

ting  the  spot  for  the  benefit  of  vessels  was  discussed.  The 
first  practical  suggestion  was  put  forward  about  the  year 
1664,  but  thirty-two  years  elapsed  before  any  attempt  was 
made  to  reduce  theory  to  practice.  Then  an  eccentric 
English  country  gentleman,  Henry  Winstanley,  who  dabbled 
in  mechanical  engineering  upon  unorthodox  lines,  came  for- 
ward and  offered  to  build  a  lighthouse  upon  the  terrible 
rock.  Those  who  knew  this  ambitious  amateur  were  dubious 
of  his  success,  and  wondered  what  manifestation  his  eccen- 
tricity would  assume  on  this  occasion.  Nor  was  their  scep- 
ticism entirely  misplaced.  Winstanley  raised  the  most 
fantastic  lighthouse  which  has  ever  been  known,  and  which 
would  have  been  more  at  home  in  a  Chinese  cemetery  than 
in  the  English  Channel.  It  was  wrought  in  wood  and  most 
lavishly  embellished  with  carvings  and  gilding. 

Four  years  were  occupied  in  its  construction,  and  the 
tower  was  anchored  to  the  rock  by  means  of  long,  heavy 
irons.  The  light,  merely  a  flicker,  flashed  out  from  this 
tower  in  1699  and  for  the  first  time  the  proximity  of  the 
Eddystones  was  indicated  all  round  the  horizon  by  night. 
Winstanley's  critics  were  rather  free  in  expressing  their 
opinion  that  the  tower  would  come  down  with  the  first 
sou' -wester,  but  the  eccentric  builder  was  so  intensely 
proud  of  his  achievement  as  to  venture  the  statement  that 
it  would  resist  the  fiercest  gale  that  ever  blew,  and,  when 
such  did  occur,  he  hoped  that  he  might  be  in  the  tower  at 
the  time. 

Fate  gratified  his  wish,  for  while  he  was  on  the  rock  in 
the  year  1703  one  of  the  most  terrible  tempests  that  ever 
have  assailed  the  coasts  of  Britain  gripped  the  structure, 
tore  it  up  by  the  roots,  and  hurled  it  into  the  Channel, 
where  it  was  battered  to  pieces,  its  designer  and  five  keepers 
going  down  with  the  wreck.  When  the  inhabitants  of 
Plymouth,  having  vainly  scanned  the  horizon  for  a  sign 
of  the  tower  on  the  following  morning,  put  off  to  the  rock 
to  investigate,  they  found  only  the  bent  and  twisted  iron 
rods  by  which  the  tower  had  been  held  in  position  projecting 
mournfully  into  the  air  from  the  rock-face. 


74  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

Shortly  after  the  demolition  of  the  tower,  the  reef,  as  if 
enraged  at  having  been  denied  a  number  of  victims  owing 
to  the  existence  of  the  warning  light,  trapped  the  Win- 
chelsea  as  she  was  swinging  up  Channel,  and  smashed  her  to 
atoms,  with  enormous  loss  of  life. 

Although  the  first  attempt  to  conquer  the  Eddystone  had 
terminated  so  disastrously,  it  was  not  long  before  another 
effort  was  made  to  mark  the  reef.  The  builder  this  time 
was  a  Cornish  labourer's  son,  John  Rudyerd,  who  had 
established  himself  in  business  on  Ludgate  Hill  as  a  silk- 
mercer.  In  his  youth  he  had  studied  civil  engineering,  but 
his  friends  had  small  opinion  of  his  abilities  in  this  craft. 
However,  he  attacked  the  problem  boldly,  and,  although  his 
tower  was  a  plain,  business-looking  structure,  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  conceive  a  design  capable  of  meeting  the 
peculiar  requirements  of  the  situation  more  efficiently.  It 
was  a  cone,  wrought  in  timber,  built  upon  a  stone  and  wood 
foundation  anchored  to  the  rock,  and  of  great  weight  and 
strength.  The  top  of  the  cone  was  cut  off  to  permit  the 
lantern  to  be  set  in  position.  The  result  was  that  externally 
the  tower  resembled  the  trunk  of  an  oak-tree,  and  appeared 
to  be  just  about  as  strong.  It  offered  the  minimum  of 
resistance  to  the  waves,  which,  tumbling  upon  the  ledge, 
rose  and  curled  around  the  tapering  form  without  starting 
a  timber. 

Rudyerd,  indeed,  may  be  considered  to  be  the  father  of 
the  science  of  modern  lighthouse  designing,  because  the 
lines  that  he  evolved  have  never  been  superseded  for  ex- 
posed positions  even  in  these  days  of  advanced  engineer- 
ing science,  greater  constructional  facilities,  and  improved 
materials.  Rudyerd's  ingenuity  and  skill  received  a  trium- 
phant vindication  when  the  American  engineers  set  out  to 
build  the  Minot's  Ledge  and  Spectacle  Reef  lighthouses, 
inasmuch  as  these  men  followed  slavishly  in  the  lines  he 
laid  down,  and  their  achievements  are  numbered  among  the 
great  lighthouses  of  the  world  to-day. 

Rudyerd  built  his  tower  with  infinite  care,  although  he 
was  harassed  in  his  operations  by  the  depredations  of  French 


THE  EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE  75 

privateers,  who  haunted  this  part  of  the  British  coast.  On 
one  occasion  the  whole  of  the  men  were  surprised  while  at 
their  work,  and  were  borne  off  in  triumph  as  prisoners  of 
war  to  France.  Louis  XIV.,  however,  heard  of  the  capture, 
and  the  privateers,  instead  of  being  honoured  for  the  catch, 
as  they  anticipated,  were  strongly  reprimanded  and  com- 
pelled to  release  their  captures.  "  Their  work  is  for  the 
benefit  of  all  nations.  I  am  at  war  with  England,  not  with 
humanity,"  was  the  Sovereign's  comment ;  and  by  way  of 
compensation  the  prisoners  were  loaded  with  presents  and 
reconveyed  to  the  rock,  to  resume  their  toil. 

For  forty  years  Rudyerd's  structure  defied  the  elements, 
and  probably  would  have  been  standing  to  this  day  had  it 
not  possessed  one  weak  point.  It  was  built  of  wood  instead 
of  stone.  Consequently,  when  a  fire  broke  out  in  the 
lantern  on  December  4,  1755,  the  flames,  fanned  by  the 
breeze,  rapidly  made  their  way  downwards.  The  keepers 
were  impotent  and  sought  what  refuge  they  could  find 
under  projecting  crags  below,  as  the  lead  which  had  been 
employed  in  construction  melted  into  drops  and  rained 
down  on  all  sides,  so  that  the  unfortunate  men  were  exposed 
to  another  and  more  alarming  danger.  In  fact,  one  man, 
while  watching  the  progress  of  the  fire,  was  drenched  with 
a  shower  of  molten  metal,  some  of  which,  he  declared,  had 
entered  his  open  mouth  and  had  penetrated  into  his  stomach. 
When  rescued  he  was  writhing  in  fearful  agony,  but  his 
story  was  received  with  incredulity,  his  comrades  believing 
that  the  experience  had  turned  his  brain  and  that  this  was 
merely  one  of  his  delusions.  When  the  man  died,  a  post- 
mortem examination  was  made,  and  the  doctors  discovered 
ample  corroboration  of  the  man's  story  in  the  form  of  a  lump 
of  lead  weighing  some  seven  ounces  ! 

No  time  was  lost  in  erecting  another  tower  on  the  rock, 
for  now  it  was  more  imperative  than  ever  that  the  reef 
should  be  lighted  adequately.  The  third  engineer  was  John 
Smeaton,  who  first  landed  on  the  rock  to  make  the  surveys 
on  April  5,  1756.  He  was  able  to  stay  there  for  only  two 
and  a  quarter  hours  before  the  rising  tide  drove  him  off, 


-je  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

but  in  that  brief  period  he  had  completed  the  work  necessary 
to  the  preparation  of  his  design.  Wood  had  succumbed  to 
the  attacks  of  tempest  and  of  fire  in  turn.  He  would  use  a 
material  which  would  defy  both — Portland  stone.  He  also 
introduced  a  slight  change  in  the  design  for  such  structures, 
and  one  which  has  been  universally  copied,  producing  the 
graceful  form  of  lighthouse  with  which  everyone  is  so 
familiar.  Instead  of  causing  the  sides  to  slope  upwards  in 
the  straight  lines  of  a  cone,  such  as  Rudyerd  adopted, 
Smeaton  preferred  a  slightly  concave  curve,  so  that  the 
tower  was  given  a  waist  at  about  half  its  height.  He  also 
selected  the  oak-tree  as  his  guide,  but  one  having  an  extensive 
spread  of  branches,  wherein  will  be  found  a  shape  in  the 
trunk,  so  far  as  the  broad  lines  are  concerned,  which  co- 
incides with  the  form  of  Smeaton's  lighthouse.  He  chose  a 
foundation  where  the  rock  shelved  gradually  to  its  highest 
point,  and  dropped  vertically  into  the  water  upon  the  oppo- 
site side.  The  face  of  the  rock  was  roughly  trimmed  to 
permit  the  foundation-stones  of  the  tower  to  be  laid.  The 
base  of  the  building  was  perfectly  solid  to  the  entrance 
level,  and  each  stone  was  dovetailed  securely  into  its 
neighbour. 

From  the  entrance,  which  was  about  15  feet  above  high- 
Water,  a  central  well,  some  5  feet  in  diameter,  containing  a 
staircase,  led  to  the  storeroom,  nearly  30  feet  above  high- 
water.  Above  this  was  a  second  storeroom,  a  living-room 
as  the  third  floor,  and  the  bedroom  beneath  the  lantern. 
The  light  was  placed  about  72  feet  above  high-water,  and 
comprised  a  candelabra  having  two  rings,  one  smaller  than, 
and  placed  within,  the  other,  but  raised  about  a  foot  above 
its  level,  the  two  being  held  firmly  in  position  by  means  of 
chains  suspended  from  the  roof  and  secured  to  the  floor. 
The  rings  were  adapted  to  receive  twenty-four  lights,  each 
candle  weighing  about  2|  ounces.  Even  candle  manufac- 
ture was  in  its  infancy  in  those  days,  and  periodically  the 
keepers  had  to  enter  the  lantern  to  snuff  the  wicks.  In 
order  to  keep  the  watchers  of  the  lights  on  the  alert,  Smeaton 
installed  a  clock  of  the  grandfather  pattern  in  the  tower, 


THE    EDDYSTOXE,   THE    MOST    FAMOUS    LIGHTHOUSE   OF   EXGLAND. 

To  the  right  is  the  stump  of  Smeaton's  historic  tower. 


Photo,  Paid,  Penzance. 
A   THRILLING    EXPERIENCE. 
Landing  upon  the  Eddystone  by  the  crane  rope  during  a  rough  sea. 


THE  EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE  -]'] 

and  fitted  it  with  a  gong,  which  struck  every  half-hour  to 
apprise  the  men  of  these  duties.  This  clock  is  now  one 
of  the  most  interesting  relics  in  the  museum  at  Trinity 
House. 

The  first  stone  of  the  tower  was  laid  on  a  Sunday  in  June, 
1757,  as  the  date  on  the  block  indicates  ;  and  although  work 
had  to  be  pursued  fitfully  and  for  only  a  few  hours  at  a  time 
between  the  tides,  in  the  early  stages,  Smeaton  seized  every 
opportunity  offered  by  the  wind  and  sea  to  push  the  task 
forward.  For  four  years  the  men  slaved  upon  the  rock,  and, 
although  the  mechanical  handling  appliances  of  those  days 
were  primitive,  the  tower  was  completed  without  a  single 
mishap.  The  solidity  of  the  structure,  and  its  lines,  which, 
as  the  engineer  stated,  would  offer  the  minimum  of  resistance 
to  the  Atlantic  rollers,  but  at  the  same  time  would  insure 
the  utmost  stability,  aroused  widespread  admiration,  for 
it  was  felt  that  the  engineer  had  triumphed  over  Nature  at 
last.  Many  people  expressed  a  desire  to  see  how  the  tower 
would  weather  such  a  storm  as  carried  away  Winstanley's 
freakish  building,  especially  as,  in  a  roaring  sou'-wester, 
the  waves  hurled  themselves  upon  the  ledge  to  wreathe  and 
curl  upwards  to  a  point  far  above  the  dome,  blotting  the 
light  from  sight.  The  supreme  test  came  in  1762,  when  the 
lighthouse  was  subjected  to  a  battering  and  pounding  far 
heavier  than  any  that  it  had  previously  known.  But  the 
tower  emerged  from  this  ordeal  unscathed,  and  Smeaton's 
work  was  accepted  as  invulnerable. 

The  lighthouse  had  been  standing  for  120  years,  when 
ominous  reports  were  received  by  the  Trinity  Brethren 
concerning  the  stability  of  the  tower.  The  keepers  stated 
that  during  severe  storms  the  building  shook  alarmingly. 
A  minute  inspection  of  the  structure  was  made,  and  it  was 
found  that,  although  the  work  of  Smeaton's  masons  was 
above  reproach,  time  and  weather  had  left  their  mark. 
The'  tower  was  becoming  decrepit.  The  binding  cement 
had  decayed,  and  the  air  imprisoned  and  compressed  within 
the  interstices  by  the  waves  was  disintegrating  the  structure 
slowly  but  surely.     While  there  was  no  occasion  to  appre- 


78  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

hend  a  sudden  collapse,  still  it  was  considered  advisable  to 
take  precautionary  measures  in  time.  Unfortunately,  it 
was  not  feasible  to  strengthen  Smeaton's  tower  so  ade- 
quately as  to  give  it  a  new  lease  of  life,  while  lighthouse 
engineering  had  made  rapid  strides  in  certain  details  since 
it  was  completed.  Another  factor  to  be  considered  was 
the  desire  for  a  more  elevated  light,  capable  of  throwing  its 
rays  to  a  greater  distance. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  was  decided  to  build  a  new 
tower  on  another  convenient  ledge,  forming  part  of  the 
main  reef,  about  120  feet  distant.  Sir  James  Douglass,  the 
Engineer-in-Chief  to  Trinity  House,  completed  the  designs 
and  personally  superintended  their  execution.  The  Smeaton 
lines  were  taken  as  a  basis,  with  one  important  exception. 
Instead  of  the  curve  commencing  at  the  foundations,  the 
latter  comprised  a  perfect  cylindrical  monolith  of  masonry 
22  feet  in  height  by  44  feet  in  diameter.  From  this  base  the 
tower  springs  to  a  height  which  brings  the  focal  plane 
130  feet  above  the  highest  spring-tides.  The  top  of  the 
base  is  30  inches  above  high-water,  and  the  tower's  diameter 
at  this  point  being  less  than  that  of  its  plinth,  the  set-off 
forms  an  excellent  landing-stage  when  the  weather  permits. 

The  site  selected  for  the  Douglass  tower  being  lower  than 
that  chosen  by  Smeaton,  the  initial  work  was  more  exacting, 
as  the  duration  of  the  working  period  was  reduced.  The 
rock,  being  gneiss,  was  ejitremely  tough,  and  the  preliminary 
quarrying  operations  for  the  foundation-stones  which  had 
to  be  sunk  into  the  rock  were  tedious  and  difficult,  especially 
as  the  working  area  was  limited.  Each  stone  was  dove- 
tailed, not  only  to  its  neighbour  on  either  side,  but  below 
and  above  as  well.  The  foundation-stones  were  dovetailed 
into  the  reef,  and  were  secured  still  further  by  the  aid  of 
two  bolts,  each  i|  inches  in  diameter,  which  were  passed 
through  the  stone  and  sunk  deeply  into  the  rock  below. 
The  exposed  position  of  the  reef  enabled  work  to  be  continued 
only  fitfully  during  the  calmest  weather,  for  often  when 
wind  and  sea  were  quiet  the  rock  was  inaccessible  owing  to 
the  swell.     Upon  the  approach  of  bad  weather  everything 


THE  EDDYSTONE  LIGHTHOUSE  79 

was  made  fast  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  engineer — 
a  man  who  took  no  chances. 

From  the  set-off  the  tower  is  soHd  to  a  height  of  25^  feet, 
except  for  two  fresh-water  tanks  sunk  in  the  floor  of  the 
entrance-room,  which  hold  4,700  gallons.  At  this  point 
the  walls  are  no  less  than  8|  feet  thick,  and  the  heavy  teak 
door  is  protected  by  an  outer  door  of  gun-metal,  weighing 
a  ton,  both  of  which  are  closed  during  rough  weather. 

The  tower  has  eight  floors,  exclusive  of  the  entrance  ; 
there  are  two  oilrooms,  one  above  the  other,  holding 
4,300  gallons  of  oil,  above  which  is  a  coal  and  store  room, 
followed  by  a  second  storeroom.  Outside  the  tower  at 
this  level  is  a  crane,  by  which  supplies  are  hoisted,  and  which 
also  facilitates  the  landing  and  embarkation  of  the  keepers, 
who  are  swung  through  the  air  in  a  stirrup  attached  to  the 
crane  rope.  Then  in  turn  come  the  living-room,  the  "  low- 
light  "  room,  bedroom,  service-room,  and  finally  the  lan- 
tern. For  the  erection  of  the  tower,  2,171  blocks  of  granite, 
which  were  previously  fitted  temporarily  in  their  respective 
positions  on  shore,  and  none  of  which  weighed  less  than 
2  tons,  were  used.  When  the  work  was  commenced,  the 
engineer  estimated  that  the  task  would  occupy  five  years, 
but  on  May  18,  1882,  the  lamp  was  lighted  by  the  Duke 
of  Edinburgh,  the  Master  of  Trinity  House  at  the  time,  the 
enterprise  having  occupied  only  four  years.  Some  idea  may 
thus  be  obtained  of  the  energy  with  which  the  labour  was 
pressed  forward,  once  the  most  trying  sections  were  over- 
come. 

Whereas  the  former  lights  on  this  rock  had  been  of  the 
fixed  type,  a  distinctive  double  flash  was  now  introduced. 
The  optical  apparatus  is  of  the  biform  dioptric  type,  emitting 
a  beam  of  some  300,000  candle-power  intensity,  which  is 
visible  for  seventeen  miles.  In  addition  to  this  measure  of 
warning,  two  powerful  Argand  burners,  with  reflectors,  were 
set  up  in  the  low-light  room  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  a 
fixed  ray  from  a  point  40  feet  below  the  main  flashing  beam, 
to  mark  a  dangerous  reef  lying  3I  miles  to  the  north-west, 
known  as  Hand  Deeps. 


8o  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

When  the  new  tower  was  completed  and  brought  into 
service,  the  Smeaton  building  was  demolished.  This  task 
was  carried  out  with  extreme  care,  inasmuch  as  the  citizens 
of  Plymouth  had  requested  that  the  historic  Eddystone 
structure  might  be  re-erected  on  Plymouth  Hoe,  on  the 
spot  occupied  by  the  existing  Trinity  House  landmark. 
The  authorities  agreed  to  this  proposal,  and  the  ownership 
of  the  Smeaton  tower  was  forthwith  transferred  to  the 
people  of  Plymouth.  But  demolition  was  carried  out  only 
to  the  level  of  Smeaton's  lower  storeroom.  The  staircase, 
well  and  entrance  were  filled  up  with  masonry,  the  top  was 
bevelled  off,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  stump  an  iron  pole  was 
planted.  While  the  Plymouth  Hoe  relic  is  but  one  half  of 
the  tower,  its  re-erection  was  completed  faithfully,  and, 
moreover,  carries  the  original  candelabra  which  the  famous 
engineer  devised. 

Not  only  is  the  Douglass  tower  a  beautiful  example  of 
lighthouse  engineering,  but  it  was  relatively  cheap.  The 
engineer,  when  he  prepared  the  designs,  estimated  that  an 
outlay  of  £78,000,  or  $390,000,  would  be  incurred.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  building  cost  only  £59,255,  or  $296,275, 
and  a  saving  of  £18,000,  or  $90,000,  in  a  work  of  this  magni- 
tude is  no  mean  achievement.  All  things  considered,  the 
Eddystone  is  one  of  the  cheapest  sea-rock  lights  which  has 
ever  been  consummated. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND 

The  captain  of  the  lordly  liner,  as  he  swings  down  Channel 
or  approaches  the  English  coast  from  the  broad  Atlantic, 
maintains  a  vigilant  watch  until  the  light  or  the  slender 
proportions  of  the  lonely  outpost  rising  apparently  from  the 
ocean's  depths  off  the  south-west  corner  of  the  Scilly  Islands, 
become  visible.  This  is  the  Bishop  Rock,  the  western  sentinel 
of  the  English  Channel,  mounting  guard  over  as  wicked  a 
stretch  of  sea  as  may  be  found  anywhere  between  the  two 
Poles,  where  the  maritime  traffic  is  densest  and  where 
wrecks,  unfortunately,  are  only  too  frequent ;  for  the  toll 
levied  by  the  sea  off  the  Cornish  coast  is  fearful. 

Among  these  islands  was  planted  one  of  the  first  beacons 
erected  off  the  British  coasts.  At  the  outset  it  was  merely 
a  wood  bonfire,  then  a  brazier,  and  finally  a  lighthouse, 
which  crowned  St.  Agnes's  height,  to  guide  the  mariner  on 
his  way.  But  to-day  the  St.  Agnes  light  is  no  more  than  a 
memory.  Two  or  three  years  ago  the  keepers  quenched  the 
light  in  the  misty  grey  of  the  dawn  for  the  last  time.  The 
vigil  which  had  been  maintained  over  shipping  uninterrupt- 
edly through  some  230  years  was  ended.  On  a  neighbouring 
point  a  superior  modern  light  had  been  planted  which  took 
up  the  sacred  duty.  Although  established  in  1680,  the 
St.  Agnes  was  not  the  oldest  light  in  England.  This  dis- 
tinction belongs  to  the  North  Foreland  light  on  the  East 
Kentish  coast,  which  was  set  going  as  far  back  as  1636. 
This  warning  was  shed  from  a  tower  of  limber,  lath,  and 
plaster,  built  by  Sir  John  Meldrum,  but  it  fell  a  victim  to 
fire  forty-seven  years  later.  The  light  was  reconstructed 
promptly,  and  to-day  throws  a  red  and  white  gleam  of  35,000 
candle-power,  which  may  be  picked  up  twenty  miles  away. 

81  6 


82  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  south-western  extremity  of  England,  however,  is  far 
more  to  be  dreaded  than  the  south-eastern.  Here  Nature 
mixed  land  and  water  in  an  inextricable  maze  during  her 
moulding  process.  Deep,  tortuous,  wide  channels  separate 
rugged  granite  islets,  while  long,  ugly  ridges  creep  stealthily 
out  to  sea  beneath  the  pall  of  water,  ready  to  trap  the  un- 
suspecting vessel  which  ventures  too  closely.  If  one  were 
to  take  a  map  of  this  part  of  the  country,  were  to  dig  one 
leg  of  a  compass  into  the  Lizard  Head,  stretching  the  other 
so  as  to  reach  the  Eddystone  light,  and  then  were  to  describe 
a  circle,  the  enclosed  space  would  contain  more  famous  sea- 
rock  lights  than  a  similar  area  on  any  other  part  of  the 
globe.  Within  its  circumference  there  would  be  the  Eddy- 
stone,  Bishop  Rock,  Wolf,  and  Longships,  each  of  which 
lifts  its  cupola  above  a  wave-swept  ledge  of  rocks. 

The  need  for  an  adequate  indication  of  the  Scillies  was 
felt  long  before  the  Eddystone  gained  its  ill  fame.  These 
scattered  masses  of  granite,  numbering  about  140  in  all, 
break  up  the  expanse  of  the  Atlantic  about  twenty  miles 
south-west  of  the  Cornish  mainland.  Now,  the  maritime 
traffic  flowing  in  and  out  of  the  English  Channel  is  divided 
into  two  broad  classes — the  coastal  and  the  oversea  trade 
respectively.  The  former  is  able  to  creep  through  the  dan- 
gerous channel  separating  the  Scillies  from  the  mainland, 
but  the  latter  has  to  make  a  detour  to  the  south.  One 
fringe  of  the  broken  cluster  is  as  dangerous  as  the  other, 
so  that  both  streams  of  trade  demand  protection. 

On  the  south  side  the  knots  dot  the  sea  in  all  directions. 
They  are  mere  black  specks,  many  only  revealing  them- 
selves at  lowest  tides  ;  others  do  not  betray  their  existence 
even  then.  The  outermost  ledge  is  the  Bishop  Rock,  where 
disasters  have  been  fearful  and  numerous.  One  of  the  most 
terrible  catastrophes  on  record  happened  here,  when  three 
vessels  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel's  fleet  went  to  pieces  in  the 
year  1707,  and  dragged  2,000  men  down  with  them,  in- 
cluding the  Admiral  himself.  In  more  recent  times,  some 
two  or  three  years  ago,  the  Atlantic  transport  liner  Minne- 
haha dragged  her  lumbering  body  over  the  selfsame  attenu- 


a    < 


'  i  ^ 


SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND  83 

ated  rampart,  and  was  badly  damaged  before  she  could  be 
rescued.  As  may  be  supposed,  in  days  gone  by  the  awful 
character  of  the  coast  brought  prosperity  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Cornwall,  who  reaped  rich  harvests  from  the  inhuman 
practice  of  wrecking,  in  which  horrible  work  the  Scilly 
Islanders  were  easily  pre-eminent  and  more  successful,  since 
they  held  the  outer  lines  upon  which  the  majority  of  ships 
came  to  grief. 

In  the  forties  of  last  century  it  was  decided  that  this 
graveyard  should  be  marked,  but  there  was  one  great  diffi- 
culty. This  was  the  exposure  of  the  low-lying  rock  to  some 
4,000  miles  of  open  Atlantic,  where  the  rollers  rise  and  fall 
with  a  force  that  turns  the  waters  for  miles  around  into  a 
seething  maelstrom  of  foam  and  surf.  The  aspect  presented 
at  this  spot  during  a  stiff  south-westerly  or  westerly  gale  is 
terrifying  in  the  extreme,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that 
approaching  vessels  stand  so  far  off  that  the  tower  is  often 
barely  discernible  against  the  background  of  cloud  and 
banks  of  mist  caused  by  the  spray  hurled  into  the  air  from 
the  breakers  smashing  on  the  rocks. 

When  it  was  proposed  to  build  a  lighthouse  upon  a  crag 
in  the  heart  of  this  vortex,  many  people  who  knew  the 
neighbourhood  shook  their  heads  doubtfully.  The  ledge 
was  so  small,  the  force  of  the  elements  so  powerful,  that  it 
appeared  to  be  tempting  Fate  unduly  to  attempt  the  erection 
of  a  slim  stalk  of  stonework  thereon.  Some  records  of  the 
wind  pressure  exerted  during  the  heaviest  tempests  were 
taken,  and  they  showed  that  the  pressure  of  the  wind  at 
times  exceeded  7,000  pounds  per  square  foot.  It  was 
decided  to  provide  a  structure  which  should  offer  the  mini- 
mum of  resistance  to  the  waves.  This  assumed  the  form 
of  the  iron  screw-pile  tower  so  common  in  American  waters. 
The  legs  were  cast-iron  tubes  sunk  into  the  solid  granite, 
braced  and  stayed  by  means  of  wrought-iron  rods.  The 
engineers  maintained  that  the  waves  would  be  able  to  roll 
unrestrainedly  among  the  piles,  instead  of  being  obstructed, 
so  that  the  skeleton  building  would  escape  the  heavy 
buffetings  which  solid  masonry  would  experience. 


84  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

But  engineering  science  proved  woefully  frail  when  pitted 
against  the  unharnessed  forces  of  Nature.  A  heavy  gale 
sprang  up  one  night ;  the  waves  rose  and  fell  upon  the  stilts, 
broke  them  up  like  reeds,  and  carried  away  the  whole  of  the 
superstructure.  The  following  low-tide  revealed  only  a  few 
short  lengths  of  broken  and  bent  tubes,  around  which  the 
waves  bubbled  and  hissed  as  if  in  triumph  at  their  victory. 
Thus  ended  the  first  attempt  to  provide  the  Bishop  Rock 
with  a  lighthouse. 

The  engineer,  though  defeated,  was  not  dismayed.  As 
a  skeleton  structure  was  impotent,  he  would  erect  a  massive 
masonry  tower  which  not  all  the  force  of  the  waves  could 
avail  to  demolish.  Although  the  reef  is  about  150  feet  in 
length  by  52  feet  in  width,  the  engineer,  James  Walker, 
was  not  afforded  much  space  upon  which  to  place  his  crea- 
tion. He  reconnoitred  the  ridge,  and  finally  chose  a  small 
lump  just  sufficiently  large  upon  which  to  effect  a  foothold. 
The  Smeaton  type  of  tower  was  his  model,  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  rock  was  trimmed  to  receive  the  first  blocks. 
This  was  the  greatest  difficulty.  Unless  the  sea  were  as 
smooth  as  a  millpond,  he  was  helpless,  as  the  lowest  blocks 
had  to  be  laid  a  foot  beneath  low-water  mark.  A  heavy 
cofferdam  was  erected  around  the  site,  and  the  water  within 
was  pumped  out,  so  that  the  masons  might  be  able  to  toil 
upon  a  dry  rock-face. 

The  exposed,  isolated  character  of  the  spot  rendered  the 
housing  of  the  workmen  a  problem  in  itself.  They  could 
not  be  accommodated  on  the  site  ;  a  temporary  dwelling 
on  piles  for  their  accommodation  could  not  be  established, 
as  it  would  come  down  with  the  first  gale,  and  housing  on 
a  tender  was  equally  impracticable.  There  was  a  small 
uninhabited  islet  within  convenient  distance  of  the  reef, 
and  on  this  the  living-quarters  and  workshops  were  erected, 
the  men  being  transported  to  and  fro  whenever  the  con- 
ditions were  suitable.  Traces  of  this  bygone  industrial 
activity  still  remain  on  the  island,  but  the  sea-fowl  have 
once  more  claimed  it  exclusively  as  their  home.  The 
working  spells  were  brief,  as  well  as  being  somewhat  few 


SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND  85 

and  far  between,  while  the  base  was  being  prepared.  The 
granite  was  brought  to  the  island  depot,  fashioned  into 
shape,  and  then  sent  to  the  Bishop  for  erection.  Granite 
was  used  exclusively,  and  in  1878,  after  seven  years'  arduous 
labour,  the  tower,  120  feet  in  height,  capped  by  a  powerful 
light,  was  completed  :  the  dreaded  Bishop  Rock  was  con- 
quered at  last. 

When  it  was  first  commissioned,  four  men  were  deputed 
to  watch  this  light,  three  being  on  the  rock,  and  the  fourth  man 
on  leave  at  St.  Mary's.  The  duty  was  for  three  months  con- 
tinuous, one  man  being  relieved  every  month  if  possible ;  but, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  spell  on  the  rock  often  was  increased, 
owing  to  the  weather  rendering  it  impossible  to  exchange 
the  men.  The  character  of  their  duty,  under  the  terrible 
assaults  of  the  sea,  played  havoc  with  the  constitutions  and 
nerves  of  the  lighthouse-keepers.  They  became  taciturn, 
and  inevitably  fell  victims  to  neurasthenia,  owing  to  their 
long  periods  of  isolation.  Accordingly  the  authorities 
gradually  relaxed  the  spell  of  duty,  until  now  it 
comprises  a  month  on  the  rock,  followed  by  a  fortnight 
ashore,  while  six  men,  instead  of  four,  are  appointed  to 
the  station.  The  Bishop  light  demands  watchers  of  iron 
constitution  and  prolonged  experience  of  the  rigours  of 
imprisonment  upon  a  lonely  rock.  The  men  appear  to 
suffer  most  from  the  fear  that  one  day  the  seas  will  regain 
the  upper  hand  and  carry  the  slender-looking  shaft  of 
masonry  away.  When  the  Atlantic  is  roused  to  fury,  the 
din  created  by  the  waves  smashing  against  the  tower  and 
reef  is  so  deafening  that  the  keepers  can  only  converse  by 
signs. 

The  attacks  which  this  tower  has  to  withstand  are  fearful. 
When  the  equinoxes  are  raging,  it  is  no  uncommon  circum- 
stance for  the  waves  to  roll  up  the  side  of  the  tower  and 
hurl  themselves  clean  over  the  lantern.  The  enormous 
force  of  the  water  was  brought  home  very  startlingly  to 
the  attendants  of  the  light  one  night,  when  a  more  than 
usually  wicked  breaker  slid  up  the  curved  round  face  and 
wrenched    the    fog-bell,    weighing    550    pounds,    from    its 


86  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

fastenings  on  the  lantern  gallery.  The  ponderous  piece  of 
metal  was  dashed  on  to  the  reef  and  smashed  to  fragments. 
A  small  piece  was  recovered  after  the  gale,  and  is  now 
preserved  in  the  Trinity  House  museum  as  an  interesting 
memento  of  the  night  when  the  Atlantic  almost  got  the 
upper  hand.  The  nerves  of  the  men  are  tried  severely,  also, 
by  memories  of  the  terrible  marine  disasters  which  have 
happened  on  or  near  the  ridge,  such  as  that  of  the  German 
packet  Schiller,  which  went  down  in  1875  with  the  loss  of 
331  lives. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  ceaseless  attacks  of  the  waves 
should  have  left  their  traces  at  last.  The  light  had  been 
burning  for  about  twenty  years,  when  tremors  and  quakings, 
similar  to  those  observed  in  connection  with  Smeaton's 
Eddystone  tower,  were  reported  to  the  authorities.  Sir 
James  Douglass  visited  the  rock,  and  made  a  minute  inspec- 
tion. It  was  apparent  that  the  lighthouse  demanded  exten- 
sive overhauling  and  strengthening  if  it  were  to  be  pre- 
served. In  fact,  this  was  the  only  feasible  course  of  action, 
as  there  was  not  another  suitable  spot  whereon  a  new  struc- 
ture could  be  raised.  The  Eddystone  had  been  completed, 
and  as  the  same  tackle  was  available,  the  protective  work 
was  undertaken  at  once.  In  conjunction  with  this  enterprise, 
the  engineer  also  advocated  an  increase  in  the  height  of  the 
tower. 

His  plans  met  with  approval,  and  an  ingenious  means  of 
strengthening  the  existing  building  was  evolved.  Virtually 
it  comprised  the  erection  of  a  new  tower  around  the  old 
shaft,  and  connected  to  the  latter,  so  as  to  form  one  homo- 
geneous structure.  In  order  to  strengthen  the  foundations, 
massive  blocks  of  masonry  were  sunk  into  the  rock,  ce- 
mented, and  held  in  position  by  heavy  bolts.  From  the 
masons'  point  of  view,  the  task  of  overhauling  was  more 
exciting  and  dangerous  than  that  which  had  attended  the 
erection  of  the  original  tower  ;  for  the  men  had  to  toil  on 
narrow,  swinging  platforms,  cutting  notches  in  the  face  of 
every  stone  in  the  existing  structure  to  receive  dovetails  on 
the  blocks  of  the  new  outer  shell.     Thus  the  latter  were 


SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND  87 

dovetailed  to  adjacent  blocks  on  five  out  of  their  six  faces. 
A  massive  chain  was  slung  round  the  upper  part  of  the  tower, 
from  which  life-lines  hung  down  to  the  men  working  below. 
A  man  was  stationed  as  a  lookout.  When  he  saw  a  breaker 
approaching  he  gave  a  signal ;  each  man  clutched  his  life- 
rope  tenaciously  and  retained  his  foothold  as  best  he  could 
on  his  perilous  perch  while  the  water  swept  over  him. 
Often  the  men  were  submerged  by  a  rushing  wave,  and 
when  the  water  subsided  shook  themselves  like  dogs  emerging 
from  the  water.  But  the  provision  of  the  life-ropes  pre- 
vented serious  injury  and  loss  of  life,  although  the  masons 
at  times  were  considerably  knocked  about. 

The  tower  has  been  given  an  enormous,  massive,  cylin- 
drical base,  while  the  shaft  is  solid  to  the  entrance  level, 
except  for  the  usual  water-tanks.  The  attachment  of  the 
outer  shell  reinforced  it  remarkably,  the  walls  at  the  entrance 
being  increased  to  a  thickness  of  8  feet.  The  addition  of 
the  four  extra  floors  elevated  the  light  by  a  further  40  feet, 
the  focal  plane  now  being  163  feet  above  high-water.  The 
light,  of  622,500  candle-power,  visible  for  eighteen  miles, 
is  a  white  group-flash,  there  being  two  flashes,  each  of  four 
seconds'  duration,  with  an  intervening  eclipse  of  five  seconds, 
while  the  groups  are  separated  by  intervals  of  forty-seven 
seconds. 

Off  the  northern  shores  of  the  Scillies,  standing  in  the 
strait  which  provides  a  short-cut  around  the  toe  of  England, 
is  another  magnificent  tower.  This  is  the  Wolf  Rock 
lighthouse,  marking  the  reef  of  that  name,  which  lies  eight 
miles  off  Land's  End  in  the  fairway  of  the  coastal  traffic. 
The  cluster  of  rocks  from  which  it  rises  is  just  as  dangerous 
as  that  to  the  south,  and  is  exposed  likewise  to  the  full  fury 
of  the  south-westerly  gales  coming  in  from  the  Atlantic. 
It  was  one  of  the  most  attractive  spots  to  the  old  Cornish 
wreckers,  for  ships  which  lost  their  way  during  the  fogs 
which  hang  about  this  coast  invariably  blundered  into  the 
reef,  to  be  smashed  to  pieces  within  a  very  short  time. 

This  spot  was  not  so  greatly  feared  by  the  seafarer  when 
heavy  gales  prevailed.     There  was  a  hollow  rock  on  the 


88  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES     ' 

ridge,  into  which  the  waves  were  driven.  In  so  doing  they 
compressed  the  air  within  the  space,  which,  as  it  escaped, 
produced  a  long,  distinctive  wail,  recalling  the  cry  of  the 
wolf.  It  was  this  natural  phenomenon  which  gave  the 
rock  its  name.  The  harder  the  wind  blew,  and  the  higher 
the  waves  rose,  the  louder  was  the  reverberating  bellow, 
and,  as  it  could  be  heard  distinctly  above  the  music  of  the 
storm,  the  navigator  was  able  to  steer  clear  of  the  formidable 
obstruction.  On  the  other  hand,  during  periods  of  heavy 
fog,  when  the  waves  were  usually  quiet,  there  was  scarcely 
any  perceptible  sound. 

The  Wolf  Rock  would  be  growling  to  this  day  had  it  not 
been  for  the  inhuman  action  of  the  Cornish  plunderers. 
They  detested  the  weird  noise  as  cordially  as  the  mariner 
blessed  it.  It  robbed  them  of  so  many  rich  hauls  that  at 
last  they  decided  to  silence  the  rock  for  ever.  They  filled 
the  cavity  with  large  boulders,  which  were  carried  out  in 
boats  from  the  mainland  and  dumped  overboard.  Then 
the  Cornishmen  met  with  a  spell  of  enhanced  prosperity 
from  the  increased  number  of  wrecks  which  occurred. 

When  the  exigencies  of  commerce  demanded  that  the 
reef  should  be  guarded,  a  most  fantastic  device  was  prepared. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  restore  artificially  the  natural 
siren.  A  fabric  wrought  in  copper  in  the  form  of  a  huge 
wolf  with  distended  jaws  was  contrived,  the  designers 
averring  that  the  air  would  rush  in  and  produce  a  distinctive 
whistle.  This  grotesque  danger-signal  never  reached  its 
destination.  It  would  have  been  absolutely  useless  even 
had  it  been  placed  over  the  rock,  as  the  first  lively  sea  would 
have  carried  it  away,  while  the  noise  produced,  if  any,  would 
have  been  inaudible  more  than  a  few  feet  away. 

The  Trinity  Brethren  at  last  took  the  matter  up,  but  their 
investigations  caused  them  to  doubt  the  possibility  of  building 
a  lighthouse  on  such  a  forbidding  spot.  They  did  the  next 
best  thing.  They  drove  a  thick  oak  joist  into  the  rock,  and 
attached  a  coloured  sphere  to  its  upper  extremity.  This 
constituted  a  valuable  landmark  by  day,  but  was  useless  at 
night.     But  its  life  was  brief.     The  first  storm  which  swept 


SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND  89 

the  reef  after  the  erection  of  the  beacon  tore  it  up  by  the 
roots.  It  was  replaced  by  a  heavy  mast  of  wrought-iron, 
which  suffered  a  similar  fate,  as  did  also  a  third  iron  pole 
9  inches  in  diameter.  At  last  a  low  conical  stump  was  built 
upon  the  ridge,  with  the  staff  and  sphere  projecting  from 
its  centre.  This  defied  wind  and  wave  successfully  for  many 
years.  Its  permanency  impressed  the  builders  of  the  Bishop 
Rock  light,  who  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  as  the  small 
conical  tower  held  hard  and  fast,  a  masonry  tower  could 
be  given  just  as  firm  a  hold. 

When  the  engineer  approached  the  reef  to  make  his 
surveys,  he  found  the  water  boiling  and  bubbling  madly, 
and  it  was  some  time  before  he  could  get  a  foothold.  He 
completed  his  examination,  and  then  found,  to  his  dismay, 
that  the  boat  could  not  approach  to  take  him  off.  He  could 
not  stay  where  he  was,  as  the  tide,  which  was  rising,  would 
engulf  the  reef  within  a  short  time,  so  he  resorted  to  a  bold 
expedient.  He  had  taken  the  precaution  to  bring  a  life- 
line with  him,  so  that  he  was  in  touch  with  the  boat.  He 
looped  this  round  his  waist  securely,  and  then,  telling  the 
men  to  pull  as  hard  as  they  could,  he  plunged  into  the  water. 
In  this  manner  he  was  dragged  through  the  furious  surf 
and  pulled  into  the  boat,  thoroughly  drenched,  but  other- 
wise none  the  worse  for  his  adventure. 

The  work  was  begun  in  1862,  when  the  masons  were 
despatched  to  the  rock  to  prepare  the  face  for  the  reception 
of  the  bottom  masonry  blocks.  The  tedious  and  exception- 
ally dangerous  character  of  the  work  was  emphasized  very 
forcibly  upon  those  engaged  in  the  task.  It  was  seldom 
that  the  water  was  sufficiently  placid  to  enable  a  landing  to 
be  made.  Then,  as  the  working  spell  was  very  brief,  being 
restricted  to  low-tide,  the  men  could  pause  only  for  a  few 
minutes  at  a  time,  and  even  during  these  were  menaced  by 
the  breakers.  During  the  first  working  season  only  eighty- 
three  hours  of  labour  were  possible — a  fact  which  conveys 
a  graphic  idea  of  the  exposed  character  of  the  site,  its  diffi- 
culty of  access,  and  the  short  time  available  for  work  between 
the  tides. 


90  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

While  excavations  were  under  way,  the  preparation  of  a 
landing-stage  was  taken  in  hand.  As  only  small  blocks  of 
stone  could  be  used,  naturally  it  occupied  a  considerable  time. 
It  was,  however,  essential,  in  order  to  permit  the  erection 
of  a  derrick  by  which  the  heavy  blocks  for  the  tower  could 
be  lifted  from  the  construction  boat  to  the  rock.  On  the 
rock-face  itself  the  masons  toiled  strenuously,  chipping, 
scraping,  and  paring  away  all  the  faulty  pieces  of  gneiss, 
so  that  a  firm,  solid  foundation  was  secured,  into  which  the 
bottom  course  of  stones  was  dovetailed  and  anchored. 

Owing  to  the  frequency  with  which  the  rock  was  swept 
by  the  seas,  special  precautions  had  to  be  adopted  to  insure 
the  safety  of  the  workmen.  Iron  dogs  were  driven  into  the  rock 
at  frequent  points,  to  which  ropes  were  fastened  and  allowed 
to  trail  across  the  rock,  each  mason  being  urged  to  keep  one 
of  these  life-lines  always  within  arm's  length.  As  an  addi- 
tional precaution  he  was  compelled  to  wear  a  lifebelt, 
which,  although  it  hampered  free  movement  somewhat, 
yet  gave  the  wearer,  if  he  lost  his  foothold  or  were  thrown 
into  the  water,  a  chance  of  keeping  afloat  until  the  lifeboat 
standing  by  was  able  to  reach  him.  A  Cornish  fisherman, 
who  was  familiar  with  the  seas  on  this  part  of  the  coast, 
and  who  could  judge  a  breaking  wave  from  a  distance, 
acted  as  a  lookout.  When  he  saw  a  comber  about  to  creep 
over  the  rock,  he  gave  a  signal,  when  the  workmen  clutched 
their  life-lines,  and,  with  feet  firmly  planted  and  the  ropes 
drawn  taut,  or  throwing  themselves  prostrate,  with  heads 
pointed  to  the  advancing  wave,  allowed  the  breaker  to  roll 
over  them  and  expend  its  violence  harmlessly.  Time  after 
time  the  masons  were  buried  beneath  huge  tumbling  hills 
of  water.  Work  under  such  conditions  was  decidedly  irk- 
some, and  progress  was  very  appreciably  retarded,  but 
the  safety  of  the  workmen  was,  of  course,  the  pre-eminent 
consideration.  Curiously  enough,  these  men  who  face  the 
perils,  privations,  and  exciting  incessant  dangers,  incidental 
to  lighthouse  building,  are  extremely  superstitious.  If  an 
undertaking  such  as  the  Wolf  were  attended  by  a  disaster 
and  loss  of  life  in  its  initial  stages,  the  completion  of  the 


SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND  91 

task  might  be  seriously  jeopardized.  The  rock  would  be 
regarded  as  a  "  hoo-doo,"  and  would  be  shunned  like  a 
fever-stricken  city.  Therefore  the  engineer  will  go  to  any 
lengths  to  secure,  so  far  as  is  humanly  possible,  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  lives  and  limbs  of  those  in  his  employ.  This  is 
the  chief  reason  why  the  erection  of  these  wonderful  towers 
has  been  attended  by  so  few  accidents  or  fatalities,  while 
the  men  fitted  for  the  task  are  so  few  that  the  engineer  cannot 
afford  to  disturb  their  peace  of  mind. 

The  Wolf  tower  follows  the  generally  accepted  lines,  and 
is  solid  at  the  base.  It  is  wrought  throughout  of  granite, 
the  stones  being  joggled  together.  One  ingenious  measure 
was  adopted  in  connection  with  the  lower  courses  in  order 
to  prevent  the  action  of  the  waves  from  breaking  up  the 
cement  in  the  exposed  joints  and  setting  up  disintegration. 
The  upper  surface  of  each  stone  is  given  a  wide  rabbet,  and 
the  stone  above  fits  into  the  recess  so  that  the  horizontal 
joint  between  the  two  is  covered  by  the  outer  fillet,  there- 
by protecting  it  completely.  This  practice  was  followed 
throughout  all  the  lower  courses  to  a  height  of  39  feet,  and 
the  security  thus  obtained  is  reflected  by  the  strength  of 
the  tower  to-day  after  half  a  century's  wear. 

Work  proceeded  so  slowly  in  the  early  stages,  owing  to 
the  abnormal  conditions,  that  by  the  end  of  1864  only  thirty- 
seven  stones  in  the  second  course  of  masonry  were  laid.  In 
the  meantime,  however,  the  landing-stage  had  been  prac- 
tically completed,  and  the  erection  of  the  crane  enabled  the 
blocks  for  the  tower  to  be  transferred  to  the  rock  with 
greater  ease  and  rapidity.  The  tower,  135  feet  in  height, 
was  completed  on  July  19,  1869,  while  the  light  was  brought 
into  service  early  in  the  following  year.  Eight  years  were 
expended  upon  the  enterprise,  and  during  this  period  296 
landings  were  effected  upon  the  rock  and  1,814  hours  of 
labour  were  consummated.  This  is  equal  to  about  10 1 
working  days  of  ten  hours  each,  or,  on  the  average,  less 
than  one  hour  every  day  of  the  years  occupied  in  the  under- 
taking. The  lantern  throws  a  powerful  white  light,  which 
in  clear  weather  may  be  seen  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 


92  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

miles  away.  The  cost  of  the  enterprise  was  £62,726,  or 
$313,630 — nearly  twice  that  of  the  first  Bishop  Rock  light. 

Another  gaunt  structure  rears  itself  from  a  reef  a  few 
miles  to  the  north-west  of  the  Wolf,  and  a  short  distance 
off  the  Land's  End.  This  is  the  Longships  light.  The 
name  itself  suggests  a  light-vessel,  and  a  stranger  is  surprised 
to  learn  that  it  is  an  imposing  building,  worthy  of  comparison 
with  the  two  other  structures  already  described  which  guard 
the  Scillies.  Although  it  is  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
mainland,  its  exposed  situation  rendered  its  construction  as 
exasperatingly  difficult  as  that  of  both  the  Bishop  and  Wolf 
lights.  A  few  miles  farther  north  another  powerful  light 
indicates  the  "  Kingdom  of  Heaven,"  as  the  black  hump 
of  Lundy  Island,  rising  out  of  the  Bristol  Channel,  is  collo- 
quially called,  from  the  name  of  its  clerical  owner. 

On  the  opposite  side  and  due  north  of  this  bight,  the  Pem- 
brokeshire coast  breaks  off  abruptly  at  St.  David's  Head, 
only  to  reappear  out  at  sea  in  some  twenty  little  rugged 
islets  known  as  The  Smalls.  They  occur  some  twenty- 
one  miles  off  the  mainland,  and  for  years  they  played  havoc 
with  the  shipping  plying  between  North  of  England  ports 
and  the  Bristol  Channel.  These  rocks — for  they  are  little 
else — were  the  private  property  of  a  Liverpool  gentleman, 
who  became  so  distracted  by  the  frequency  of  disaster  that, 
in  1773,  he  decided  to  crown  them  with  a  beacon.  He 
selected  a  musical  instrument  manufacturer  named  White- 
side as  his  engineer,  and  this  amateur  mechanic,  after  an 
inspection,  decided  to  place  the  warning  light  on  a  tiny  crag 
which  projected  about  5  feet  above  high  -  water.  It  is 
somewhat  strange  that  the  adequate  safeguarding  of  two 
devastating  parts  of  the  south-western  coast  of  England 
should  have  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  men  who  were  not 
professional  engineers.  Rudyerd,  the  silk -mercer,  was 
responsible  for  the  second  Eddystone,  and  here  was  an 
instrument-maker  taking  over  one  of  the  most  difHcult 
enterprises  it  was  possible  to  find.  Yet  both  these  amateur 
engineers  inscribed  their  names  ineffaceably  upon  two  of 
the  most  evil  spots  around  the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands. 


5     4) 

a.  5 


By  permission  of  the  Liirhthonse  Literatttre  MissioJi. 
HOW   THE   SKERRYVORE    IS   BUILT. 

In  the  centre,  a  vertical  section.       At  sides,  transverse  sections  at  different  masonry  courses, 
showing  method  of  laying  the  stones. 


SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND  93 

Rudyerd  gave  us  the  true  conical  design,  which  has  never 
been  superseded  for  strength  and  stabiHty  ;  while  Whiteside 
evolved  a  skeleton  tower  which  braved  the  most  tempes- 
tuous seas  for  some  eighty  years.  In  the  first  instance  the 
latter  carried  out  his  work  in  iron,  thinking  that  metal  would 
prove  irresistible,  but  within  a  short  time  he  replaced  it 
with  heavy  legs  of  oak.  The  frail-looking  structure  was 
submitted  to  storms  of  almost  seismic  violence,  but  it  with- 
stood them  all  for  over  half  a  century,  when  a  peculiarly 
vicious  wave,  as  it  rolled  between  the  supports,  suddenly 
flew  upwards,  driving  the  floor  of  the  keepers'  quarters  into 
the  roof.  It  was  an  exceptional  accident,  which  no  engineer 
could  have  foreseen.  When  the  Trinity  House  Brethren 
took  over  the  light,  their  chief  engineer,  Mr.  James  Walker, 
looked  upon  the  erection  as  such  a  fine  piece  of  work  that 
the  damage  was  repaired,  and  the  Whiteside  light  gleamed 
for  a  further  twenty  years  before  it  gave  place  to  the  present 
graceful  stone  building. 

It  was  a  grim  episode  at  this  light  which  brought  about  the 
practice  of  appointing  three  men  at  least  to  a  sea  light- 
station.  When  first  completed,  The  Smalls  was  provided 
with  only  two  keepers,  and  on  one  occasion  one  of  the  two 
died.  His  companion  refrained  from  committing  the  body 
to  the  sea,  lest  he  might  be  suspected  of  foul-play,  so  he  con- 
structed a  rough  shell,  in  which  he  placed  the  body  of  his 
dead  chum,  and  stood  the  grisly  burden  on  end  beside  his 
flag  of  distress  on  the  gallery  outside  the  lantern.  As  the 
spell  of  duty  in  those  days  was  four  months,  it  was  some 
time  before  the  relief  came  out.  Then  they  discovered  a 
shattered  human  wreck  tending  the  lights,  who  had  never 
neglected  his  duty  under  the  onerous  and  weird  conditions, 
but  who  nevertheless  had  become  broken  down  and  aged 
under  the  terrible  ordeal.  After  this  experience  three  men 
instead  of  two  were  placed  on  duty  at  all  such  exposed  and 
inaccessible  lights.  It  may  be  recalled  that  Alphonse 
Daudet  tells  a  similar  creepy  story  which  was  related  to  him 
by  a  light-keeper  on  the  rugged  Corsican  coast,  and  which 
he  narrates  in  the  "  Phares  des  Sanguinaires."     A  similar 


94  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES  " 

experience  is  also  associated  with  Rudyerd's  Eddystone 
light. 

Off  the  North  Welsh  coast  there  are  the  famous  lights  of 
the  South  Stack  and  the  Skerries,  the  latter  rising  out  of  the 
water  on  a  dangerous  cluster  of  rocks  off  Carmel  Head. 
The  Isle  of  Man  also  possesses  a  magnificent  specimen  of 
lighthouse  engineering  in  the  Chicken  Rock  light,  the  work 
of  the  brothers  Stevenson,  which,  although  in  the  Irish  Sea, 
comes  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Commissioners  of 
Northern  Lights.  This  tower  stands  on  a  reef  which  is 
submerged  by  6  feet  of  water  even  at  high  neap-tides.  When 
a  gale  is  raging  and  the  spring-tides  are  at  their  highest, 
the  waves  frequently  engulf  the  lantern,  although  it  is 
perched  143  feet  above  the  water.  The  light  is  of  143,000 
candle-power,  of  the  revolving  type,  and  visible  for  sixteen 
miles  in  clear  weather. 

Entering  the  English  Channel  from  the  Scillies,  the 
voyager  observes  the  powerful  Lizard  light  gleaming  like  two 
brilliant  white  stars  from  a  prominent  elevated  point  on  the 
cliff.  Formerly  three  lights  were  shown,  but  two  were 
found  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  situation  adequately. 
The  steamship  lane  lies  across  the  chord  of  the  arc  formed 
by  the  coastline  between  the  Lizard  and  Start  Point,  leaving 
the  Eddystone  to  the  north.  The  next  important  light  is 
the  Needles,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Solent.  A  few  miles 
farther  on  the  brilliant  spoke-light  flashes  of  St.  Catherine's, 
described  in  another  chapter,  compel  attention.  No  other 
light  after  this  is  seen  until  Beachy  Head  is  approached. 
Another  dreary  stretch  brings  the  vessel  abeam  the  nose  of 
Kentish  coast  known  as  Dungeness,  a  particularly  notorious 
danger  spot.  Here  there  is  a  continual  struggle  between 
the  engineers  and  the  sea.  While  the  waves  gnaw  into  the 
coastline  at  other  neighbouring  places,  here  they  surrender 
their  capture,  so  that  the  headland  is  persistently  creeping 
farther  and  farther  out  to  sea.  It  is  lighted,  and  has  been 
guarded  for  years,  but  the  tower  is  left  at  a  constantly 
increasing  distance  from  the  water's  edge.  The  light  has 
been  moved  once  or  twice,  so  as  to  fulfil  its  purpose  to  the 


SOME  FAMOUS  LIGHTS  OF  ENGLAND  95 

best  advantage,  but  the  engineer  will  be  kept  on  the  alert 
until  the  currents  change  their  courses  and  refrain  from 
piling  up  further  drift  at  this  point.  This  light,  coming  as 
it  does  at  the  entrance  to  the  bottle-neck  of  the  English 
Channel,  is  of  prime  importance  to  navigation,  because 
vessels,  after  they  have  rounded  the  South  Foreland,  make 
a  bee-line  for  this  headland. 

Since  the  eastern  coast  of  England  is  flanked  by  sand- 
banks and  shoals,  the  lighthouse  is  not  in  powerful  evidence, 
the  aids  to  navigation  consisting  chiefly  of  light-vessels, 
which  are  distributed  liberally  so  as  to  patrol  completely  a 
treacherous  stretch  of  shoals.  Northwards  the  sandy,  low- 
lying  wastes  give  way  to  towering  cliffs,  amongst  which 
Flamborough  Head  and  its  light  are  conspicuous.  At  the 
far  northern  limit  of  the  operations  of  Trinity  House  comes 
the  Longstones,  mounting  guard  over  the  terrible  Fame 
Islands  and  their  rocky  outposts.  Who  has  not  heard  of  the 
heroism  of  Grace  Darling,  the  light-keeper's  daughter,  and 
the  thrilling  rescue,  in  the  teeth  of  a  hurricane,  of  the  ex- 
hausted survivors  of  the  Forfarshire  ? 

Complaints  have  been  made  often  regarding  the  paucity 
of  powerful  lights  around  the  coast  of  England,  but  the 
criticism  scarcely  is  deserved.  All  the  prominent  and  most 
dangerous  spots  are  lighted  adequately,  and,  as  may  be 
recognized,  the  provision  of  these  lights  has  proved  an 
exacting  and  costly  enterprise.  What  England  may  lack 
in  numbers  in  this  particular  field  of  engineering  is  com- 
pensated for  by  the  daring  nature  of  the  works  completed, 
which  are  regarded  throughout  the  world  as  marvellous 
achievements.  :» 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  BELL  ROCK  AND  SKERRYVORE  LIGHTS 

At  first  sight  it  seems  somewhat  remarkable— some  might 
feel  disposed  to  challenge  the  assertion — that  so  small  a 
country  as  Scotland  should  stand  pre-eminent  among  the 
nations  of  the  world  as  being  that  possessed  of  the  greatest 
number  of  imposing  sea-rock  lights.  But  such  is  the  case. 
Moreover,  North  Britain  offers  some  of  the  finest  and  most 
impressive  specimens  of  the  lighthouse  builder's  resource 
and  skill  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  globe. 

When  the  responsibility  for  lighting  the  Scottish  coasts 
was  handed  over  to  the  Commissioners  for  Northern  Light- 
houses, one  of  their  first  tasks  was  the  adequate  illumination 
of  the  wave-swept  Inchcape  or  Bell  Rock,  which  lies  some 
twelve  miles  off  the  Scottish  mainland  in  the  busy  portal 
of  the  Firth  of  Tay.  At  that  time  this  sinister  menace  to 
navigation  was  not  marked  in  any  way  whatever,  and 
apparently  had  remained  in  this  unprotected  condition  ever 
since  the  notorious  pirate,  Ralph  the  Rover,  cut  away  the 
buoy-bell  which  had  been  placed  upon  it  by  the  Abbot  of 
Aberbrothock,  as  narrated  in  Southey's  famous  ballad. 

The  rock,  or  rather  reef  —  inasmuch  as  it  measures 
2,000  feet  from  end  to  end,  and  lies  athwart  the  fairway — 
is  submerged  completely  to  a  depth  of  i6  feet  at  high  spring- 
tides, while  at  lowest  water  only  some  4  feet  of  its  crest, 
are  laid  bare  here  and  there.  This  is  not  all.  The  ledge 
is  the  summit  of  a  dangerous,  slowly  -  rising  submarine 
hillock,  where,  for  a  distance  of  about  100  yards  on  either 
side,  the  lead  sounds  only  3  fathoms.  Wrecks  were  so 
numerous  and  terrible  at  this  spot  that  the  protection  of  the 
seafaring  community  became  imperative,  and  the  newly- 
appointed  guardians  of  the  Scottish  coast  lost  no  time  in 

96 


THE  BELL  ROCK  AND  SKERRYVORE  LIGHTS     97 

justifying  the  trust  reposed  in  them,  but  erected  a  first-class 
light.  The  Eddystone  had  been  conquered,  and,  although 
the  conditions  were  dissimilar  and  the  enterprise  bolder,  no 
tangible  reason  against  its  imitation  was  advanced. 

The  engineer  John  Rennie  was  entrusted  with  the  work, 
while  Robert  Stevenson  was  appointed  as  his  assistant. 
The  rock  was  surveyed,  and  a  tower  similar  in  its  broad 
lines  to  that  evolved  by  Smeaton  for  the  Eddystone  was 
elaborated,  and  the  authority  for  its  construction  given  in 
the  year  1806. 

Work  upon  the  rock  in  the  earliest  stages  was  confined 
to  the  calmest  days  of  the  summer  season,  when  the  tides 
were  lowest,  the  water  was  smoothest,  and  the  wind  in  its 
calmest  mood.  Under  such  conditions  the  men  were  able 
to  stay  on  the  site  for  about  five  hours.  The  engineer  hoped 
against  hope  that  the  elements  would  be  kind  to  him,  and 
that  he  would  be  able  to  complete  the  preliminary  work 
upon  the  rock  in  one  season. 

The  constructional  plans  were  prepared  carefully,  so  that 
advantage  might  be  taken  of  every  promising  opportunity. 
One  distinct  drawback  was  the  necessity  to  estabhsh  a 
depot  some  distance  from  the  erecting  site.  Those  were  the 
days  before  steam  navigation,  and  the  capricious  sailing 
craft  offered  the  only  means  of  maintaining  communication 
between  rock  and  shore,  and  for  the  conveyance  of  men 
and  material  to  and  fro.  The  year  1807  was  devoted  to 
the  construction  of  vessels  for  the  work,  and  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  workshops  with  machinery  and  other  facilities 
at  Arbroath,  the  nearest  suitable  point  on  the  mainland  to 
the  rock.  A  temporary  beacon  was  placed  on  the  reef,  while 
adjacent  to  the  site  selected  for  the  tower  a  smith's  forge 
was  made  fast,  so  as  to  withstand  the  dragging  motion  of 
the  waves  when  the  rock  was  submerged.  The  men  were 
housed  on  the  Smeaton,  which  during  the  spells  of  work  on 
the  rock  rode  at  anchor  a  short  distance  away  in  deep 
water.  The  arrangements  stipulated  that  three  boats, 
which  were  employed  to  bring  the  men  from  the  vessel  to 
the  rock,  should  always  be  moored  at  the  landing-place, 

7 


98  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

so  that,  in  the  event  of  the  weather  changing  for  the  worse, 
the  masons,  forced  to  cease  work  suddenly,  might  regain 
the  Smeaton  safely  in  one  trip,  the  three  boats  being  able  to 
convey  thirty  men,  which  constituted  the  average  comple- 
ment on  the  rock. 

While  the  preparations  were  proceeding  ashore,  a  little 
body  of  workers  toiled,  whenever  possible,  at  clearing  the 
face  of  the  rock  and  carrying  out  the  requisite  excavation 
work.  While  this  was  in  progress  a  disaster  was  averted 
very  narrowly,  which  would  have  jeopardized  the  completion 
of  the  tower,  owing  to  the  superstitious  natures  of  the  men 
engaged.  On  September  2,  1807,  the  Smeaton,  as  usual, 
had  brought  out  some  thirty  masons,  had  landed  them 
safely  on  the  rock,  and  was  riding  at  anchor. 

Suddenly  the  wind  freshened,  and  the  engineer  on  the 
rock  grew  apprehensive  of  the  Smeaton  dragging  her  cables. 
A  party  at  once  put  off  from  the  rock  in  one  of  the  three 
boats  and  regained  the  ship,  but  were  scarcely  aboard  when 
the  cables  parted,  and  the  vessel,  caught  by  the  wind  and 
tide,  made  off.  Before  the  men  regained  control  of  her  she 
had  drifted  some  three  miles  to  leeward.  Meantime  on  the 
rock  the  situation  was  growing  serious.  Only  Mr.  Steven- 
son, who  was  supervising  operations  on  the  spot,  and  the 
landing-master  were  aware  of  its  gravity.  The  masons 
were  so  busy  hewing,  boring  and  chiselling,  that  they  had 
not  noticed  the  Smeaton' s  drift.  But  the  engineer,  observing 
the  flowing  of  the  tide,  realized  that  the  rock  must  be  sub- 
merged before  the  ship  could  be  brought  up  again.  He 
racked  his  brains  to  find  some  means  of  getting  his  gang 
of  men  off  safely  in  the  nick  of  time,  but  it  was  a  searching 
problem  to  solve  with  only  two  boats,  which,  at  the  utmost, 
could  carry  twenty-four  persons.  To  make  matters  worse, 
one  of  those  mists  which  are  so  peculiar  to  the  Scottish  coast 
began  to  settle  down,  blotting  everything  from  sight. 

The  water  rose  higher.  The  men  toiling  on  the  lowest 
levels  receded  higher  and  higher  before  the  advancing  tide, 
though  still  too  deeply  occupied  in  their  labours  to  bestow 
a  thought  upon  the  Smeaton.     At  last  the  smith's  forge  was 


THE  BELL  ROCK  AND  SKERRYVORE  LIGHTS     99 

quenched,  and  this  was  the  general  signal  to  the  men  to 
prepare  to  leave  the  rock.  Tools  were  collected,  and  the 
party  strode  towards  the  landing-stage  to  enter  the  boats. 
Conceive  their  consternation  when  they  saw  that  one  boat 
was  missing  !  When  they  glanced  over  the  water  the 
Sm^  ton  was  not  riding  in  her  usual  place — in  fact,  was 
nowhere  to  be  seen  !  One  and  all  gathered  around  the 
engineer  to  learn  the  reason  for  this  remarkable  breach  in 
the  arrangements  for  their  safety,  and  yet  all  were  too  dumb- 
founded to  question  or  protest.  As  for  the  luckless  engineer, 
he  was  at  his  wits'  end  and  could  not  offer  a  word  of  explana- 
tion to  the  inquiring  looks  that  besieged  him.  One  and  all, 
as  the  water  lapped  their  feet,  realized  the  hopelessness  of 
the  position.  Suddenly,  when  they  were  beginning  to 
despair,  one  of  the  men  described  the  phantom  form  of  a 
vessel  making  for  the  rock.  "  A  boat !"  he  shouted  in 
exultation.  Sure  enough  the  shadow  matured  into  the 
familiar  form  of  the  Tay  pilot -boat,  the  master  of  which, 
observing  the  workmen  on  the  rock,  the  rising  tide,  and  the 
absence  of  the  Smeaton,  had  realized  that  something  must 
have  gone  wrong,  and  approached  the  rock  to  make  in- 
quiries. He  came  up  at  the  critical  moment.  The  men 
were  drenched,  and,  their  feelings  having  been  strung  to  a 
high  pitch  with  anxiety,  they  nearly  collapsed  at  the  arrival 
of  this  unexpected  assistance.  The  pilot-boat,  after  taking 
off  the  men,  awaited  the  return  of  the  Smeaton,  which  took 
them  on  board  about  midnight. 

This  narrow  escape  so  terrified  the  men  that  on  the  fol- 
lowing day  the  engineer  found  only  eight  of  his  staff  of 
thirty-two,  who  were  willing  to  venture  upon  the  rock  again. 
When  this  gang  returned  in  the  evening,  their  safety  ap- 
peared to  restore  courage  to  their  companions,  so  that  next 
day  all  expressed  their  readiness  to  resume  their  tasks. 

The  fitful  character  of  the  work  did  not  leave  its  mark  so 
distinctly  as  might  be  supposed.  Whenever  there  was  a 
chance,  the  men  worked  with  an  amazing  will  and  zeal ; 
and  although  the  first  stone  of  the  tower  was  not  laid  until 
July  10,  1808,  three  courses  of  masonry  were  completed 


100  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

when  the  undertaking  was*  suspended  at  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber for  the  winter.  The  succeeding  season's  toil  saw  the 
addition  of  about  27  feet  more  of  the  tower,  which  was 
finally  completed  by  the  close  of  18 10.  The  building  was 
120  feet  in  height,  and  the  light  was  shown  for  the  first  time 
on  February  i,  1811. 

In  view  of  the  difficulties  which  had  to  be  surmounted, 
this  "  ruddy  gem  of  changeful  light,"  as  it  is  described  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  was  not  particularly  costly.  By  the  time 
it  was  brought  into  commission,  £61,330,  or  $306,650,  had 
been  expended.  In  1902,  after  nearly  a  century's  service, 
the  tower  was  provided  with  a  new  light-room,  so  as  to  bring 
it  into  conformity  with  modern  practice. 

While  the  Bell  Rock  tower  stands  as  a  monument  to  the 
engineering  ability  of  Robert  Stevenson,  the  Skerryvore,  on 
the  western  coast,  is  a  striking  tribute  to  the  genius  of  his 
son,  Alan.  For  forty  years  or  more  previous  to  1844  one 
ship  at  least  had  been  caught  and  shattered  every  year  on 
this  tumbled  mass  of  gneiss.  From  the  navigator's  point 
of  view,  the  danger  of  this  spot  lay  chiefly  in  the  fact  that 
it  was  so  widely  scattered.  The  ridge  runs  like  a  broken 
backbone  for  a  distance  of  some  eight  miles  in  a  west-south- 
westerly direction,  and  it  is  flanked  on  each  side  by  isolated 
rocks  which  jut  from  a  badly-broken  sea-bed.  The  whole 
mass  lies  some  distance  out  to  sea,  being  ten  miles  south- 
west of  Tyree  and  twenty-four  miles  west  of  lona.  In  rough 
weather  the  whole  of  the  rocks  are  covered,  and  the  waves, 
beating  heavily  on  the  mass,  convert  the  scene  into  one  of 
indescribable  tumult. 

The  Commissioners  of  Northern  Lights  acknowledged  the 
urgent  need  of  a  light  upon  this  ridge,  but  it  was  realized 
that  its  erection  would  represent  the  most  daring  feat  of 
lighthouse  engineering  that  had  been  attempted  up  to  this 
time.  There  was  only  one  point  where  a  tower  could  be 
placed,  and  this  was  so  exposed  that  the  safe  handling  of 
the  men  and  materials  constituted  a  grave  responsibility. 
The  rock  has  to  withstand  the  full  impetus  of  the  Atlantic 
waves,  gathered  in  their  3,000  miles'  roll,  and  investiga- 


THE  BELL  ROCK  AND  SKERRYVORE  LIGHTS     loi 

tions  revealed  the  fact  that  they  bear  down  upon  the  Skerry- 
vore  with  a  force  equal  to  some  3  tons  per  square  foot.  It 
was  apparent  that  any  masonry  tower  must  be  of  pro- 
digious strength  to  resist  such  a  battering,  while  at  the  same 
time  a  lofty  stack  was  imperative,  because  the  light  not 
only  would  have  to  mount  guard  over  the  rock  upon  which 
it  stood,  but  also  ove^  a  vast  stretch  of  dangerous  water  on 
either  side. 

After  he  had  completed  the  Bell  Rock  light,  Robert 
Stevenson  attacked  the  problem  of  the  Skerry vore.  In 
order  to  realize  the  magnitude  of  the  undertaking,  some  of 
the  Commissioners  accompanied  the  engineer,  but  the  ex- 
perience of  pulling  out  into  the  open  Atlantic  on  a  day 
when  it  was  slightly  ruffled  somewhat  shook  their  deter- 
mination to  investigate  the  reef  from  close  quarters.  Sir 
Walter  Scott  was  a  member  of  the  party,  and  he  has  de- 
scribed the  journey  very  graphically.  Before  they  had  gone 
far  the  Commissioners  on  board  expressed  their  willingness 
to  leave  the  matter  entirely  in  the  hands  of  their  engineer. 
With  grim  Scottish  humour,  however,  Robert  Stevenson 
insisted  that  the  rock  should  be  gained,  so  that  the  Com- 
missioners might  be  able  to  grasp  the  problem  at  first 
hand. 

But  after  all  nothing  was  done.  The  difficulties  sur- 
rounding the  work  were  only  too  apparent  to  the  officials. 
They  agreed  that  the  expense  must  be  prodigious  and  that 
the  risks  to  the  workmen  would  be  grave. 

In  1834  3-  second  expedition  was  despatched  to  the  reef 
under  Alan  Stevenson,  who  had  accompanied  his  father  on 
the  previous  occasion,  and  who  now  occupied  the  engineer- 
ing chair.  He  surveyed  the  reef  thoroughly,  traversing  the 
dangerous  channels  around  the  isolated  humps,  of  which  no 
less  than  130  were  counted,  at  great  risk  to  himself  and  his 
companions.  However,  he  achieved  his  object.  He  dis- 
covered the  best  site  for  the  tower  and  returned  home  to 
prepare  his  plans. 

His  proposals,  for  those  days,  certainly  were  startling. 
He  decided  to  follow  generally  the  principles  of  design,  which 


102  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

had  been  laid  down  by  his  father  in  regard  to  the  Bell  Rock. 
But  he  planned  something  bigger  and  more  daring.  He 
maintained  that  a  tower  130  feet  high,  with  a  base  diameter 
of  42  feet,  tapering  in  a  curve  to  16  feet  at  the  top,  was 
absolutely  necessary.  It  was  the  loftiest  and  weightiest 
work  of  its  character  that  had  ever  been  contemplated  up 
to  this  time,  while  the  peculiar  situation  of  the  reef  demanded 
pioneering  work  in  all  directions. 

The  confidence  of  the  Commissioners  in  the  ability  of  their 
engineer  was  so  complete  that  he  received  the  official 
sanction  to  begin,  and  in  1838  the  undertaking  was  com- 
menced. The  engineer  immediately  formulated  his  plans 
of  campaign  for  a  stiff  struggle  with  Nature.  One  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  was  the  necessity  to  transport  men, 
supplies  and  material  over  a  long  distance,  as  the  Scottish 
coast  in  this  vicinity  is  wild  and  sparsely  populated.  He 
estabhshed  his  base  on  the  neighbouring  island  of  Tyree, 
where  barracks  for  the  workmen,  and  yards  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  material,  were  erected,  while  another  colony  was 
established  on  the  Isle  of  Mull  for  the  quarrying  of  the 
granite.  A  tiny  pier  or  jetty  had  to  be  built  at  this  point 
to  facilitate  the  shipment  of  the  stone,  and  at  Tyree  a  small 
harbour  had  to  be  completed  to  receive  the  vessel  which 
was  built  specially  for  transportation  purposes  between  the 
base  and  the  rock. 

Another  preliminary  was  the  provision  of  accommodation 
for  the  masons  upon  the  reef.  The  Atlantic  swell,  which 
rendered  landing  on  the  ridge  precarious  and  hazardous,  did 
not  permit  the  men  to  be  housed  upon  a  floating  home,  as 
had  been  the  practice  in  the  early  days  of  the  Bell  Rock 
tower.  In  order  to  permit  the  work  to  go  forward  as  un- 
interruptedly as  the  sea  would  permit,  a  peculiar  barrack 
was  erected.  It  was  a  house  on  stilts,  the  legs  being  sunk 
firmly  into  the  rock,  with  the  living-quarters  perched  some 
40  feet  up  in  the  air.  The  skeleton  type  of  structure  was 
selected  because  it  did  not  impede  the  natural  movement 
of  the  waves.  It  was  an  ingenious  idea,  and  fulfilled  the 
purpose  of  its  designer  admirably,  while  the  men  became 


By  pe7'7nissio7i  of  the  Lighthouse  Literaiic^'t  Mission. 
THE   SKERRYVORE,   SCOTLAND'S   MOST   FAMOUS   LIGHTHOUSE. 

The  erection  of  this  tower  upon  a  straggling  low-lying  reef  24  miles  off  lona,  and  exposed  to  the 
full  fury  of  the  Atlantic,  ranks  as  one  of  the  world's  engineering  wonders. 


BARRA    HEAD    LIGHTHOUSE,   SCOTLAND. 

The  tower  is  60  feet  in  height,  but  owing  to  its  position  on  the  clififs,  the  white  occulting  light  is 
683  feet  above  high  water,  and  is  visible  33  miles. 


By perjnissiO}i  ofth<.  I  ijhthoitse  J  ite7  ahi->  e  Missioii. 

THE    HOMES   OF   THE    KEEPERS   OF   THE   SKERRYVORE   AND    DHU-HEARTACH 

LIGHTS. 

On  the  Island  of  Tiree,  Argyllshire,  10  miles  away. 


THE  BELL  ROCK  AND  SKERRYVORE  LIGHTS     103 

accustomed  to  their  strange  home  after  a  time.  For  two 
years  it  withstood  the  seas  without  incident,  and  the  en- 
gineer and  men  came  to  regard  the  eyrie  as  safe  as  a  house 
on  shore.  But  one  night  the  Httle  colony  received  a  shock. 
The  angry  Atlantic  got  one  or  two  of  its  trip-hammer  blows 
well  home,  and  smashed  the  structure  to  fragments.  For- 
tunately, at  the  time  it  was  untenanted. 

The  workmen,  who  were  on  shore  waiting  to  go  out  to 
the  rock  to  resume  their  toil,  were  downcast  at  this  unex- 
pected disaster,  but  the  engineer  was  not  at  all  ruffled.  He 
promptly  sent  to  Glasgow  for  further  material,  and  lost  no 
time  in  rebuilding  the  quaint  barrack  upon  new  and  stronger 
lines.  This  erection  defied  the  waves  successfully  until  its 
demolition  after  the  Skerry vore  was  finished. 

Residence  in  this  tower  was  eerie.  The  men  climbed  the 
ladder  and  entered  a  small  room,  which  served  the  purposes 
of  kitchen,  dining-room,  and  parlour.  It  was  barely  12  feet 
across — quarters  somewhat  cramped  for  thirty  men.  When 
a  storm  was  raging,  the  waves,  as  they  combed  over  the  rock, 
shook  the  legs  violently  and  scurried  under  the  floor  in 
seething  foam.  Now  and  again  a  roller,  rising  higher  than 
its  fellows,  broke  upon  the  rock  and  sent  a  mass  of  water 
against  the  flooring  to  hammer  at  the  door.  Above  the 
living-room  were  the  sleeping-quarters,  high  and  dry,  save 
when  a  shower  of  spray  fell  upon  the  roof  and  walls  like 
heavy  hail,  and  occasionally  percolated  the  joints  of  the 
woodwork.  The  men,  however,  were  not  perturbed.  Sleep- 
ing, even  under  such  conditions,  was  far  preferable  to 
doubtful  rest  in  a  bunk  upon  an  attendant  vessel,  rolling 
and  pitching  with  the  motion  of  the  sea.  They  had  had  a 
surfeit  of  such  experience  during  the  first  season's  work, 
while  the  barrack  was  under  erection. 

Yet  the  men  could  not  grumble.  The  engineer  responsible 
for  the  work  shared  their  privations  and  discomforts,  for 
Alan  Stevenson  clung  to  the  rock  night  and  day  while  work 
was  in  progress,  and  he  has  given  a  very  vivid  impression  of 
life  in  this  quaint  home  on  legs.  He  relates  how  he  "  spent 
many  a  weary  day  and  night — at  those  times  when  the  sea 


104  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

prevented  anyone  going  down  to  the  rock — anxiously  look- 
ing for  supplies  from  the  shore,  and  earnestly  looking  for  a 
change  of  weather  favourable  for  prosecuting  the  works. 
For  miles  around  nothing  could  be  seen  but  white  foaming 
breakers,  and  nothing  heard  but  howling  winds  and  lashing 
waves.  At  such  seasons  much  of  our  time  was  spent  in 
bed,  for  there  alone  we  had  effectual  shelter  from  the  winds 
and  spray,  which  searched  every  cranny  in  the  walls  of  the 
barrack.  Our  slumbers,  too,  were  at  times  fearfully  inter- 
rupted by  the  sudden  pouring  of  the  sea  over  the  roof,  the 
rocking  of  the  house  on  its  pillars,  and  the  spurting  of  water 
through  the  seams  of  the  doors  and  windows — symptoms 
which,  to  one  suddenly  aroused  from  sound  sleep,  recalled 
the  appalling  fate  of  the  former  barrack,  which  had  been 
engulfed  in  the  foam  not  20  yards  from  our  dwelling,  and 
for  a  moment  seemed  to  summon  us  to  a  similar  fate." 

The  work  upon  the  rock  was  tedious  and  exasperating  in 
the  extreme.  The  gneiss  was  of  maddening  hardness  and 
obstinacy — "  four  times  as  tough  as  Aberdeen  granite  "  was 
the  general  opinion.  The  Atlantic,  pounding  the  rock  con- 
tinuously through  the  centuries,  had  faced  it  smoother  than 
could  any  mason  with  his  tools,  yet  had  not  left  it  suffi- 
ciently sound  to  receive  the  foundations.  In  the  external 
layer,  which  the  masons  laboured  strenuously  to  remove 
with  their  puny  tools,  there  were  cracks  and  crevices  here 
and  there.  The  stubborn  rock  played  havoc  with  the  finest 
chisels  and  drills,  and  clearing  had  to  be  effected  for  the 
most  part  by  the  aid  of  gunpowder.  This  powerful  agent, 
however,  could  only  be  used  sparingly  and  with  extreme 
skill,  so  that  the  rock-face  might  not  be  shivered  or  shat- 
tered too  severely.  Moreover,  the  men  ran  extreme  risks, 
for  the  rock  splintered  like  glass,  and  the  flying  chips  were 
capable  of  doing  as  much  damage,  when  thus  impelled,  as 
a  bullet. 

While  the  foundations  were  being  prepared,  and  until  the 
barrack  was  constructed,  the  men  ran  other  terrible  risks 
every  morning  and  night  in  landing  upon  and  leaving  the 
polished  surface  of  the  reef.     Five  months  during  the  sum- 


THE  BELL  ROCK  AND  SKERRYVORE  LIGHTS     105 

mer  was  the  working  season,  but  even  then  many  days  and 
weeks  were  often  lost  owing  to  the  swell  being  too  great  to 
permit  the  rowing-boat  to  come  alongside.  The  engineer 
relates  that  the  work  was  "  a  good  lesson  in  the  school  of 
patience,"  because  the  delays  were  frequent  and  galling, 
while  every  storm  which  got  up  and  expended  its  rage  upon 
the  reef  left  its  mark  indelibly  among  the  engineer's  stock- 
in-trade.  Cranes  and  other  material  were  swept  away  as 
if  they  were  corks  ;  lashings,  no  matter  how  strong,  were 
snapped  like  pack-threads.  Time  after  time  the  tender 
lying  alongside  had  to  weigh  anchor  hurriedly,  and  make  a 
spirited  run  to  its  haven  at  Tyree. 

When  the  barrack  was  erected,  the  situation  was  eased 
somewhat,  but  then  the  hours  became  long.  Operations 
being  confined  to  the  summer  months,  the  average  working 
day  was  from  four  in  the  morning  until  nine  in  the  evening 
— seventeen  hours — with  intervals  for  meals  ;  but  the  men 
were  not  averse  to  the  prolonged  daily  toil,  inasmuch  as 
cessation  brought  no  welcome  relaxations,  but  rather  en- 
couraged broodings  over  their  isolated  position,  whereas 
occupation  served  to  keep  the  mind  engaged.  Twice  the 
men  had  severe  frights  during  the  night.  On  each  occasion 
a  violent  storm  sprang  up  after  they  had  gone  to  bed,  and 
one  or  two  ugly  breakers,  getting  their  blows  home,  shook 
the  eyrie  with  the  force  of  an  earthquake.  Every  man 
leaped  out  of  his  bunk,  and  one  or  two  of  the  more  timid,  in 
their  fright,  hurried  down  the  ladder  and  spent  the  remain- 
ing spell  of  darkness  shivering  and  quaking  on  the  com- 
pleted trunk  of  the  lighthouse,  deeming  it  to  be  safer  than 
the  crazy-looking  structure  which  served  as  their  home. 

Two  years  were  occupied  upon  the  foundations,  the  first 
stone  being  laid  by  the  Duke  of  Argyll  on  July  7,  1840. 
This  eminent  personage  evinced  a  deep  interest  in  the  work 
and  the  difficulties  which  had  to  be  overcome,  and  as  pro- 
prietor of  the  island  of  Tyree  extended  to  the  Commissioners 
free  permission  to  quarry  any  granite  they  required  from 
any  part  of  his  estate. 

For  a  height  of  some  21  feet  from  the  foundation  level  the 


io6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

tower  is  a  solid  trunk  of  masonry.  Then  come  the  entrance 
and  water-tanks,  followed  by  nine  floors,  comprising  succes- 
sively coal-store,  workshop,  storeroom,  kitchen,  two  bed- 
rooms, library,  oil-store,  and  light-room,  the  whole  occupy- 
ing a  height  of  130  feet,  crowned  by  the  lantern.  As  a 
specimen  of  lighthouse  engineering,  the  Skerryvore  has  be- 
come famous  throughout  the  world.  The  stones  forming 
the  solid  courses  at  the  bottom  are  attached  to  one  another 
so  firmly  and  ingeniously  as  to  secure  the  maximum  of 
strength  and  solidity,  the  result  being  that  nothing  short  of 
an  earthquake  could  overthrow  the  stalk  of  masonry. 

The  erection  of  the  superstructure  was  by  no  means  free 
from  danger  and  excitement.  The  working  space  both  on 
the  tower  itself  and  around  the  base  was  severely  cramped. 
The  men  at  the  latter  point  had  to  keep  a  vigilant  eye  upon 
those  working  above,  since,  despite  the  most  elaborate  pre- 
cautions, falls  of  tools  and  other  heavy  bodies  were  by  no 
means  infrequent.  Notwithstanding  its  perilous  character, 
the  undertaking  was  free  from  accident  and  fatality,  and, 
although  the  men  were  compelled  by  force  of  circumstances 
to  depend  mostly  upon  salt  foodstuffs,  the  little  colony 
suffered  very  slightly  from  the  ravages  of  dysentery. 

Probably  the  worst  experience  was  when  the  men  on  the 
rock  were  weather-bound  for  seven  weeks  during  one  season. 
The  weather  broke  suddenly.  Heavy  seas  and  adverse  winds 
raged  so  furiously  that  the  steamboat  dared  not  put  out  of 
its  haven,  but  remained  there  with  steam  up,  patiently 
waiting  for  a  lull  in  the  storm,  during  which  they  might 
succour  the  unfortunate  men  on  the  reef.  The  latter  passed 
a  dreary,  pitiable  time.  Their  provisions  sank  to  a  very 
low  level,  they  ran  short  of  fuel,  their  sodden  clothing  was 
worn  to  rags,  and,  what  was  far  worse  from  their  point  of 
view,  their  tobacco  became  exhausted.  The  average  work- 
ing man  will  tolerate  extreme  discomfort  and  privation  so 
long  as  the  friendship  of  his  pipe  remains,  but  the  denial  of 
this  companion  comes  as  the  last  straw. 

The  lantern  is  of  special  design,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  around  the  Scottish  coasts.     It  is  of  the  revolving 


THE  BELL  ROCK  AND  SKERRYVORE  LIGHTS     107 

class,  reaching  its  brightest  state  once  every  minute,  and 
may  be  seen  from  the  deck  of  a  vessel  eighteen  miles  away 
Six  years  were  occupied  in  the  completion  of  the  work,  and, 
as  may  be  imagined,  the  final  touches  were  welcomed  with 
thankfulness  by  all  those  who  had  been  concerned  in  the 
enterprise.  The  tower  contains  4,308  tons  of  granite,  and 
the  total  cost  was  £86,977,  or  $434,885,  rendering  it  one  of 
the  costliest  in  the  world.  This  sum,  however,  included  the 
purchase  of  the  steam-vessel  which  now  attends  the  light- 
house, and  the  construction  of  the  little  harbour  at  Hynish. 
The  lighthouse-keepers  live  on  the  island  of  Tyree,  where 
are  provided  substantial,  spacious,  single-floor,  masonry 
dwellings  with  gardens  attached.  This  is  practically  a 
small  colony  in  itself,  inasmuch  as  the  accommodation  in- 
cludes, not  only  that  for  the  keepers  of  the  Skerryvore,  but 
for  the  guardians  of  the  Dhu-Heartach  light  as  well. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  LONELY  LIGHTS  OF  SCOTLAND 

Barren  ruggedness,  ragged  reefs,  and  towering  cliffs  form 
an  apt  description  of  the  north  and  west  coasts  of  Scotland, 
and  he  is  a  prudent  navigator  who  acknowledges  the  respect 
which  these  shores  demand,  by  giving  them  a  wide  berth. 
The  Norwegian  coast  is  serrated,  the  island  of  New- 
foundland may  be  likened  to  the  battered  edge  of  a  saw, 
but  Scotland  is  unique  in  its  formation.  The  coastline  is 
torn  and  tattered  by  bays  and  firths,  with  scattered  out- 
lying ramparts.  The  captain  of  a  "  tramp  "  who  has  sailed 
the  seven  seas  once  confessed  to  me  that  no  stretch  of  coast- 
line ever  gave  him  the  shivers  so  badly  as  the  stretch  of 
shore  between  Duncansby  Head  and  the  Mull  of  Kintyre. 

Certainly  a  ship  "  going  north  about  "  is  menaced  every 
mile  of  her  way  between  these  two  points  unless  she  takes 
a  very  circuitous  course.  If  the  weather  conditions  are 
favourable  and  daylight  prevails,  the  North  of  Britain  may 
be  rounded  through  the  narrow  strait  washing  the  mainland 
and  the  Orkney  Islands,  but  the  Pentland  Firth  is  not  an 
attractive  short-cut.  The  ships  that  run  between  Scandi- 
navian ports  and  North  America  naturally  follow  this  route, 
as  it  is  several  hundred  miles  shorter  than  that  via  the  North 
Sea  and  English  Channel ;  but  they  keep  a  sharp  eye  on  the 
weather  and  are  extremely  cautious.  When  the  Pentland 
Firth  is  uninviting,  they  may  either  choose  the  path  between 
the  Orkneys  and  the  Shetlands,  or,  to  eliminate  every 
element  of  risk,  may  stand  well  out  to  sea,  and  round  the 
most  northern  stretches  of  the  Shetlands.  These  are  lonely 
seas,  comparatively  speaking,  and  yet  are  well  lighted. 
Although  a  wicked  rock  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  eastern 
entrance  to  the  Pentland  channel,  it  is  indicated  by  the 

1 08 


THE  LONELY  LIGHTS  OF  SCOTLAND  109 

Pentland  Skerries  light.  When  the  mariner  in  his  wisdom 
pushes  still  farther  north,  he  falls  within  the  glare  of  the 
rays  thrown  from  the  beacon  near  Muckle  Flugga.  This 
is  the  northernmost  point  of  the  British  Islands,  and  it  is 
truly  forbidding.  The  rock  lies  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
off  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  is  a  huge  fang,  sheering  to  a 
height  of  196  feet  above  high-water.  On  the  side  facing 
north  it  rears  up  so  abruptly  that  it  appears  to  lean  over, 
while  on  the  opposite  side  it  is  almost  as  steep. 

The  majority  of  lighthouses  have  been  called  into  exist- 
ence by  the  claims  of  commerce  purely  and  simply.  But 
it  was  not  so  with  the  North  Unst  lighthouse,  as  the  beacon 
crowning  this  pinnacle  is  called.  War  was  responsible  for 
its  creation,  though  probably  sooner  or  later  the  require- 
ments of  peace  would  have  brought  about  a  similar  result. 
While  the  armies  of  France  and  Britain  were  fighting  the 
Russians  in  the  Crimea,  the  British  fleet  was  hovering  about 
these  waters,  watching  the  mouth  of  the  Baltic,  so  as  to 
frustrate  any  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  Russian  fleet  to 
dash  around  the  northern  coast  of  Scotland.  In  those  days 
these  lonely  seas  were  badly  lighted,  and  the  Admiralty 
realized  only  too  well  the  many  perils  to  which  the  warships 
were  exposed  while  cruising  about  the  pitiless  coasts  of 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands.  Accordingly,  the  department 
called  upon  the  Commissioners  of  Northern  Lighthouses 
to  mark  Muckle  Flugga.  Time  was  everything,  and  the 
engineers  were  urged  to  bring  a  temporary  light  into  opera- 
tion with  the  least  delay. 

The  engineers  hurriedly  evolved  a  tower  which  would 
meet  the  Government  needs.  It  was  thought  that  the  ex- 
treme height  of  the  rock  would  lend  itself  to  the  erection  of 
a  building  which,  while  possible  of  early  completion,  would 
be  adequate  for  subsequent  purposes.  The  materials  for 
the  light,  together  with  a  lantern,  and  a  second  building  for 
the  storage  of  the  oil  and  other  requisites,  were  shipped 
northward  from  Glasgow.  Simultaneously  the  engineers, 
with  another  small  gang  of  men  who  had  already  reached 
the  rock,  pushed  on  with  the  preliminary  preparations,  so 


no  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

that  when  the  constructional  vessel  arrived  erection  might 
go  ahead  straightfoi"wardly  and  rapidly. 

The  engineers  tried  the  rock  from  all  sides  to  find  a  safe 
landing.  This  was  no  light  matter,  owing  to  the  steepness 
of  the  slope  even  upon  the  easiest  face  of  the  pinnacle.  The 
attempt  represented  a  mild  form  of  mountaineering,  for  the 
sea  had  battered  away  the  projection  of  the  lower-lying 
levels,  and  the  men  found  it  trying  to  effect  a  foothold,  even 
in  stepping  from  the  boat  on  to  the  rock.  They  had  to 
climb  hand  over  hand  up  the  precipice,  with  life-lines  round 
their  waists,  taking  advantage  of  every  narrow  ledge.  With 
infinite  labour  they  gained  the  summit,  and  then  they  found 
that  there  was  just  sufficient  space,  and  no  more,  upon  which 
to  plant  the  lighthouse  buildings. 

The  top  was  cleared  quickly,  and  then  the  advance  party 
set  to  work  to  improve  the  landing-place  on  the  south  side  of 
the  rock  for  the  reception  of  the  building  materials.  A  small 
site  was  prepared  with  great  difficulty,  as  the  tough  rock 
offered  a  stern  resistance  to  the  chisels,  drills,  and  wedges  ; 
while  in  addition  the  men  had  to  cut  steps  in  the  flank  of 
the  rock  to  facilitate  the  ascent  to  the  site. 

On  September  14,  1854,  the  constructional  vessel  Pharos 
hove  in  sight,  and,  the  weather  being  favourable,  the  landing 
of  the  material  was  hurried  forward.  The  men  had  to 
become  pack-animals  for  the  time,  carrying  the  loads  on 
their  backs.  In  this  manner  they  tramped  laboriously  up 
and  down  the  cliff -face  with  material  and  stores  of  all  descrip- 
tions. The  heavier  and  bulkier  parts  were  hauled  up  by 
rope  and  tackle,  a  few  feet  at  a  time,  and  this  task  was 
quite  as  exacting.  In  all,  120  tons  were  conveyed  to  the 
top  of  the  crag.  Construction  was  hastened  just  as  fever- 
ishly, and  on  October  11,  1854,  twenty-six  days  after  the 
Pharos  anchored  off  Muckle  Flugga,  the  North  Unst  light 
shone  out  for  the  first  time.  This  is  probably  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  exploits  that  has  ever  been  consummated  in 
connection  with  lighthouse  engineering,  the  merit  of  which 
is  additionally  impressive  from  the  fact  that  almost  every- 
thing had  to  be  accomplished  by  manual  effort. 


H 

o     S 

O         > 


THE  LONELY  LIGHTS  OF  SCOTLAND  iii 

While  the  light  was  admittedly  of  a  temporary  character, 
the  importance  of  the  outpost  had  been  appreciated,  and 
it  was  determined  to  erect  a  permanent  light  upon  the  rock 
for  the  guidance  of  those  who  compass  the  North  of  Scot- 
land in  order  to  pass  from  and  to  the  North  Atlantic.  It 
was  decided  to  commence  the  permanent  masonry  building 
the  following  year,  and  a  gang  of  men  volunteered  to  stay 
behind  on  the  rock  throughout  the  winter  to  complete  all 
the  essential  preparations  for  the  foundations.  Accommoda- 
tion was  available  for  this  staff  in  a  substantial  iron  shelter, 
in  which  they  made  themselves  comfortable  for  the  winter. 

But  it  is  during  this  season  that  the  winds  from  the  north, 
lashing  the  sea  to  fury,  create  huge  rollers  which  thunder 
upon  the  base  of  the  pinnacle  to  crawl  up  its  perpendicular 
face  in  the  form  of  broken  water  and  spray.    The  men 
standing  on  the  brink  often  watched  these  rollers,  but  never 
for  a  moment  thought  that  one  would  be  able  to  leap  to  a 
height  of  nearly  200  feet  and  sweep  over  the  rock.     The 
December  gales  dispelled  this  illusion  very  convincingly. 
One  morning  the  workmen,  while  breakfasting  in  their  warm 
shelter,  received  a  big  surprise.     A  terrific  blow  struck  the 
door,  which  flew  open  as  if  hit  by  a  cannon-ball.     It  was 
followed  instantly  by  a  three-foot  wall  of  water.     The  broken 
wave  rushed  round  the  apartment,  seething  and  foaming, 
and  then  out  again.     The  workmen  were  dumbfounded,  but 
had  scarcely  recovered  from  the  shock  when  another  roll  of 
water  came   crashing  in  and  gave  the  apartment  another 
thorough  flushing  out.     One  of  the  Scottish  workmen  vouch- 
safed the  remark  that  the  man  responsible  for  cleaning  the 
floors  that  day  would  be  spared  his  job,  but  he  was  silenced 
when,  a  few  seconds  later,  another  angry  sheet  of  water 
dropped  on  the  roof  of  the   building   and  threatened  to 
smash  it  in. 

The  closing  month  of  that  year  was  particularly  boister- 
ous. Time  after  time  when  the  sea  rose,  the  lighthouse 
tower  was  drenched  in  water.  One  might  think  it  im- 
possible that  a  wave  could  get  up  sufficient  impetus  to 
mount  a  height  of  200  feet  ;  but  this  experience  offered  con- 


112  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

elusive  testimony  to  the  contrary  and  to  the  immense  power 
of  the  waves  when  they  have  an  uninterrupted  run  over 
several  hundred  miles  of  open  ocean. 

In  a  way,  the  terrifying  experience  of  these  marooned 
workmen  was  invaluable.  They  reported  the  bare  facts  to 
the  engineers  upon  the  first  opportunity,  and  this  intelligence 
brought  about  a  revision  in  the  designs  for  the  permanent 
masonry  structure. 

The  present  North  Unst  lighthouse  is  a  massive  masonry 
building,  standing  in  the  centre  of  the  small  flat  space  on  the 
top  of  the  pinnacle,  with  heavy  masonry  walls  bounding  it 
on  all  sides.  The  tower  is  64  feet  in  height,  while  the  red 
and  white  light  may  be  seen  from  a  distance  of  twenty-one 
miles  in  clear  weather.  That  the  winter  storms  of  1854 
were  by  no  means  exceptional  has  been  proved  up  to  the 
hilt  on  several  occasions  since.  When  the  nor'-wester  is 
roused  thoroughly,  the  breaking  waves  curl  up  the  cliff  and 
rush  over  the  lantern.  Such  a  climb  of  260  feet  conveys  a 
compelling  notion  of  the  force  of  the  sea.  The  weight  of  the 
water  thrown  into  the  air  has  threatened  to  overthrow  the 
massive  boundary  walls,  while  now  and  again  the  invader 
leaves  tangible  evidences  of  its  power  by  smashing  the 
windows  of  the  lantern.  Upon  one  occasion  it  burst  open 
the  heavy  door,  which  weighs  the  best  part  of  a  ton. 

The  light-station  is  served  by  four  keepers,  two  on  duty 
simultaneously,  their  homes  being  on  the  island  of  Unst, 
four  miles  away.  For  the  conveyance  of  water,  fuel,  pro- 
visions, and  other  requirements,  from  the  landing-stage  to 
the  lighthouse  200  feet  above,  an  inclined  railway  has  been 
provided  on  the  easier  slope,  so  that  the  men  are  no  longer 
called  upon  to  pack  their  provisions,  like  mules,  from  the 
water-level  up  a  steep  cliff,  as  was  formerly  required. 

Rounding  these  island  dangers,  the  navigator  picks  up 
the  light  of  Cape  Wrath,  glimmering  from  a  height  of 
370  feet  above  the  water-level  and  standing  at  the  western 
corner  of  the  rectangular  head  of  the  Scottish  mainland. 
Going  south,  he  has  two  passages  available — the  inner, 
which  extends  throiagh  the  Minches  and  inside  the  Hebrides ; 


THE  LONELY  LIGHTS  OF  SCOTLAND  113 

or  the  outer,  which  lies  beyond  the  latter  rampart.  In 
making  the  outer  passage  he  comes  within  range  of  the 
light  shining  from  the  summit  of  a  lonely  group  of  rocks 
standing  some  twenty-two  miles  out  to  sea  off  the  Isle  of 
Lewis.  These  are  the  Flannen  Islands,  or  Seven  Hunters, 
one  of  many  similar  lonely  Scottish  stations.  The  tower  is 
mounted  upon  the  crown  of  one  of  the  highest  points,  and 
the  white  group-flashing  light  is  visible  over  a  radius  of 
twenty-four  miles.  Farther  south  the  seafarer  picks  up 
and  drops  the  Monach  Islands  light,  likewise  lying  out  in 
the  Atlantic,  some  ten  miles  from  the  nearest  land.  Finally, 
rounding  Barra  Head,  the  most  southerly  point  of  the  reef 
lying  off  Barra  Island,  the  light  from  which  is  cast  580  feet 
above  the  water  owing  to  the  height  of  the  cliff,  the  vessel 
slips  into  a  huge  indentation,  where  isolated  rocks  peep 
above  the  Atlantic,  one  of  the  most  dangerous  of  which  is 
indicated  by  the  Skerryvore  lighthouse. 

I  have  described  the  Skerryvore  light  in  the  previous 
chapter  ;  but  nineteen  and  a  half  miles  to  the  south-east  of 
the  latter  is  another  reef,  just  as  exposed,  which  is  as  perilous 
in  every  respect.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  to  constitute  a 
greater  menace  to  the  navigation  of  these  waters,  since  it  lies 
in  the  cross-roads  of  the  entrance  to  the  Irish  Channel,  the 
Firth  of  the  Clyde,  and  the  Minches.  A  powerful  light 
mounts  guard  on  the  Rhins  of  Islay,  twenty-seven  miles 
due  south,  but  between  the  latter  and  Skerryvore  there  are 
forty-three  miles  of  coast,  as  dangerous  as  the  mariner  could 
wish  to  avoid,  with  this  rock  looming  up  almost  halfway. 

This  peril  is  the  Dhu-Heartach,  lying  out  to  sea  in  deep 
water,  fourteen  miles  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  mainland. 
The  physical  configuration  of  the  sea-bed  at  this  point  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  prevailing  at  Skerryvore.  The 
Ross  of  Mull  tumbles  abruptly  into  the  Atlantic,  to  reappear 
out  to  sea  in  the  form  of  the  Torrin  Rocks,  which  run  for  a 
distance  of  four  and  a  half  miles  in  the  direction  of  Dhu- 
Heartach.  Then  the  reef  comes  to  a  sudden  stop,  to  be 
seen  once  more,  nine  miles  farther  out,  in  the  rounded  hump 
of  Dhu-Heartach,  this  being  practically  the  outermost  point 

8 


114  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

of  the  ridge.  Being  so  isolated  and  projecting  so  suddenly 
from  deep  water,  this  ledge  claimed  many  victims  among 
the  vessels  frequenting  these  unlighted  waters.  The  Com- 
missioners of  Northern  Lighthouses  were  assailed  for  not 
marking  the  danger  spot  in  some  form  or  other.  The 
authorities,  however,  were  fully  alive  to  the  need  of  such 
protection,  but  it  was  not  until  1867  that  they  were  able  to 
proceed  with  the  erection  of  a  lighthouse. 

The  situation  is  peculiar,  and  the  engineers,  Messrs.  D. 
and  T.  Stevenson,  were  faced  with  a  somewhat  perplexing 
problem  recalling  those  which  had  arisen  in  conjunction 
with  the  Skerryvore,  not  far  distant.  Indeed,  the  Dhu- 
Heartach  undertaking  might  very  well  be  described  as  a 
repetition  of  those  struggles,  with  a  few  more  difficulties  of 
a  different  character  thrown  in.  The  rock  itself  in  reality 
is  a  series  of  islets,  or  hummocks,  surrounding  the  main 
hump,  which  is  240  feet  in  length  by  130  feet  in  breadth, 
the  highest  point  of  the  rounded  top  being  35  feet  above 
high-water  at  ordinary  spring-tides.  On  all  sides  the  lead 
marks  very  deep  water,  the  result  being  that  in  times  of 
storm  and  tempest  the  rollers  of  the  Atlantic,  having  a 
"  fetch  "  of  some  3,000  miles  or  more,  thunder  upon  it  with 
terrific  force,  the  broken  water  leaping  high  into  the  air. 
It  is  very  seldom  that  the  rock  can  be  approached  even  in  a 
small  boat  and  with  a  calm  sea,  as  the  hump  is  invariably 
encircled  in  a  scarf  of  ugly  surf.  The  swell  strikes  the 
western  face  of  the  rock,  is  divided,  flows  round  the  northern 
and  southern  ends  of  the  obstruction,  and  reunites  on  the 
eastern  side.  Consequently  the  rock  is  nearly  always  a 
centre  of  disturbance. 

The  distance  of  the  rock  from  the  mainland  complicated 
the  issue  very  materially.  A  suitable  site  had  to  be  prepared 
on  shore  as  a  base,  where  the  stones  could  be  prepared  for 
shipment,  while  a  special  steam-tender  was  necessary  to  run 
to  and  fro.  The  handling  of  the  workmen  had  to  be  carried 
out  upon  the  lines  which  were  adopted  at  Skerryvore — 
namely,  the  erection  of  a  barrack  upon  a  skeleton  frame- 
work on  the  rock,  where  the  men  might  be  left  safely  for 


THE  LONELY  LIGHTS  OF  SCOTLAND  115 

days  or  weeks  at  a  time.  The  shore  station  selected  was  at 
Earraid,  on  the  neighbouring  island  of  Mull,  because  it  was 
the  nearest  strategical  point  to  the  work,  and  because  ample 
supplies  of  first-class  granite  were  available  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity,  the  proprietor,  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  as  in  the 
previous  instance,  facilitating  the  work  as  far  as  possible. 

The  authority  to  commence  operations  was  given  on 
March  11,  1867,  and  this  year  was  devoted  to  completing 
preparations,  so  that  in  the  following  season  work  might  be 
started  in  earnest  and  carried  on  throughout  the  summer 
at  high  pressure.  The  first  task  was  the  erection  of  the 
barrack  on  the  rock.  The  workmen  got  ashore  for  the  first 
time  on  June  25,  1867,  and,  although  landing  at  all  times 
was  trying  and  perilous,  attempts  often  having  to  be  aban- 
doned owing  to  the  swell,  the  engineer  succeeded  in  landing 
twenty-seven  times  up  to  September  3,  when  work  had  to 
be  suspended  until  the  following  year.  Despite  the  short- 
ness of  the  season,  the  men  made  appreciable  headway. 
The  iron  framework  of  the  barrack  was  completed  to  the 
first  tier,  while  a  good  beginning  was  made  upon  the  rock- 
face  in  connection  with  the  foundations  for  the  lighthouse. 
When  the  autumnal  gales  approached,  everything  in  con- 
nection with  the  barrack  was  left  secure,  the  builders  being 
anxious  to  ascertain  how  it  would  weather  the  winter  gales 
and  the  force  and  weight  of  the  waves  which  bore  down 
upon  it. 

The  engineers  finally  decided  upon  a  tower  107^  feet  in 
height.  After  trying  various  curves  for  the  outline,  they 
came  to  the  decision  that  a  parabolic  frustum  would  afford 
the  most  serviceable  design,  as  well  as  providing  the  maxi- 
mum of  strength.  A  diameter  of  36  feet  was  chosen  for  the 
base,  tapering  gradually  and  gracefully  to  one  of  16  feet  at 
the  top,  with  the  entrance  32  feet  above  the  base,  to  which 
point  the  cone  was  to  be  solid. 

The  arrangements  were  that  work  should  be  resumed  in 
the  early  spring  of  1868,  so  as  to  secure  full  advantage  of  the 
favourable  easterly  winds.  Accordingly,  when  the  special 
steam-tender  arrived  on  April  14,  she  was  loaded  up  with 


ii6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

necessaries  and  men,  ready  to  proceed  to  the  site  directly 
the  wind  should  veer  round  to  the  desired  point  of  the 
compass.  But  with  aggravating  persistency  it  clung  to  the 
west  and  south-west  until  the  end  of  June,  so  that  many 
valuable  weeks  were  unfortunately  lost.  Time  after  time, 
when  there  was  a  lull  in  the  weather,  the  steamer  put  out 
from  Earraid,  the  engineers  determined  to  make  a  dash  for 
the  rock,  and  as  many  times  they  were  foiled,  as  the  men 
could  not  be  got  through  the  surf.  One  day,  however,  an 
hour  and  a  half  was  snatched  on  the  rock,  and,  although 
no  work  could  be  done  in  that  time,  yet  the  interval  was 
sufficient  to  enable  the  engineers  to  take  a  look  round  and  to 
see  how  their  handiwork  had  withstood  the  heavy  gales  of 
the  previous  winter.  There  was  only  one  marked  evidence 
of  the  Atlantic's  wrath.  One  section  of  the  iron  ring  con- 
necting the  heads  of  the  legs  of  the  barrack  at  a  height  of 
30  feet  had  been  carried  away. 

On  June  29  the  wind  moderated  sufficiently  to  enable  the 
men  to  be  landed,  but  the  climatic  conditions  remained 
adverse.  The  wind  refused  to  swing  round  to  the  east;  a 
westerly  swell  was  the  luck  day  after  day.  The  engineers 
had  to  dodge  the  ocean  as  best  they  could,  and  some  idea  of 
the  handicap  under  which  they  laboured  may  be  gathered 
from  the  fact  that  only  four  landings  were  made  during  the 
sixty-one  days  of  May  and  June.  July  enabled  the  greatest 
number  of  landings  to  be  effected — thirteen;  while  during 
August  and  September  the  men  only  gained  the  rock  on 
twenty-one  occasions,  making  a  total  of  thirty-eight  landings 
in  the  course  of  153  days. 

During  this  interrupted  season,  however,  the  barrack  was 
completed.  It  was  a  massive  structure,  and  resembled  a 
huge  iron  barrel  secured  endwise  upon  an  intricate  arrange- 
ment of  stilts  which  were  heavily  stayed  and  tied  together 
by  diagonals  and  cross-members.  In  the  two  previous 
instances  where  a  similar  arrangement  had  been  adopted 
the  temporary  dwelling  had  been  wrought  in  wood,  but  on 
this  occasion  the  engineers  decided  to  adopt  iron,  as  they 
concluded  that  a  wooden  structure  would  not  fare  well 


By  permission  of  the  Lightliouse  Liferafiire  Mission. 
THE    NORTH    UXST    LIGHT. 

The  first  light  was  built  in  twenty-six  days  during  the  Crimean  War  at  the  British  Government's 

urgent  request. 


B)  J'titiu-.s^on  of  the  Lighthoust-  Literature  M'is 

LANDING  WATER   AT  THE   NORTH    UNST. 
Showing  tramway  connecting  with  tower,  200  feet  above. 


1)  — 

■5  ° 


E  S* 


THE  LONELY  LIGHTS  OF  SCOTLAND  117 

against  the  heavy  seas.  This  was  a  fortunate  decision, 
because,  as  subsequent  experience  proved,  a  wooden  barrack 
would  have  received  very  short  shrift  from  the  Atlantic 
breakers;  in  fact,  probably  it  would  have  gone  down  with 
the  first  sou' -wester.  The  iron  barrack,  as  the  workmen 
narrated,  was  pounded  and  battered  by  the  waves  most 
unmercifully;  but  although  it  suffered  at  times,  quivering 
and  shaking  under  the  terrific  impacts,  it  weathered  all  the 
onslaughts. 

One  interesting  incident  serves  to  illustrate  the  perils  to 
which  the  workmen  were  exposed.  A  date  had  been  set 
down  when  all  the  men  were  to  be  brought  off  the  rock  for 
the  season,  as  the  approach  of  the  equinox  rendered  further 
toil  extremely  doubtful,  and  there  was  no  intention  of  unduly 
imperilling  them.  The  engineer's  resident  representative, 
Mr.  Alexander  Brebner,  went  out  to  the  rock  on  August  20, 
the  day  fixed  for  the  suspension  of  operations,  to  inspect  the 
progress  that  had  been  made  and  to  have  a  last  look  round. 
At  the  time  of  his  arrival  the  weather  was  beautifully  calm, 
and  held  out  every  promise  of  remaining  settled  for  several 
days.  As  the  season  had  been  so  adverse,  he  decided,  on 
his  own  responsibility,  to  delay  the  cessation  of  toil,  so,  with 
the  thirteen  men,  he  remained  on  the  rock,  determined  to 
make  up  leeway  somewhat  while  the  weather  held  out. 

But  the  resident  paid  the  penalty  for  his  disobedience. 
The  little  party  retired  that  night  with  the  stars  shining 
brilliantly  overhead  from  a  cloudless  sky,  and  with  the  sea 
like  a  mirror.  In  the  middle  of  the  night  one  and  all  were 
roused  suddenly  from  their  slumbers.  The  wind  was  roaring, 
and  the  breakers  were  hammering  upon  the  rock,  while  the 
foam  and  surf  rushed  violently  between  the  legs  of  the 
barracks.  When  the  men  looked  out  they  were  confronted 
with  a  terrifying  spectacle.  The  night  was  black  as  pitch, 
but  the  sea  white  as  a  snow-covered  plain,  from  the  crests 
of  the  rollers  and  the  surf  playing  on  and  around  the  rocks. 
A  furious  gale  had  sprung  up  with  the  characteristic  sudden- 
ness of  the  Atlantic,  and  was  already  raging.  The  next 
morning  no  one  dared  to  venture  outside  the  iron  home, 


ii8  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

while  the  gale,  instead  of  abating,  appeared  to  be  increasing  in 
fury.  For  five  days  the  men  were  held  fast,  and  at  times  their 
fears  got  the  better  of  them.  This  was  particularly  the  case 
when,  now  and  again,  a  more  than  ugly  wave  got  up,  rolled 
over  the  rock,  and  crashed  with  full  force  against  the  bar- 
rack. The  building  shook  and  trembled  fearfully,  but  its  legs 
were  driven  too  deeply  into  the  rock  for  it  to  be  overturned, 
while  the  cross-bracing  was  too  intricate  for  the  legs  to  be 
snapped  off.  Again  and  again  the  men  were  plunged  into 
darkness,  as  a  wall  of  water  rushed  right  over  the  drum, 
notwithstanding  that  the  roof  was  "]"]  feet  above  high-water. 

Their  fears  rose  almost  to  frenzy  when  a  breaker,  leaping 
the  rock,  drove  full  tilt  against  the  floor  of  the  barrack.  In 
this  upward  rush  of  55  feet  the  building  suffered.  The  men's 
entrance  to  the  home  was  by  means  of  a  heavy  hatch,  or 
trapdoor,  which  was  bolted  securely  upon  the  inside. 
This  particular  comber  burst  in  the  hatch  as  if  it  were  no 
thicker  than  the  wood  of  a  matchbox,  flooding  the  whole 
compartment. 

Meantime  the  engineer-in-chief  at  Edinburgh  had  heard 
of  the  incident.  He  had  given  strict  instructions  that  the 
men  should  be  brought  off  on  August  20,  and  when  the  intel- 
ligence was  communicated  to  him  that  his  order  had  been 
disobeyed,  and  that  his  men  were  in  serious  straits,  he 
became  distracted.  He  knew  only  too  well  how  the  waves 
bombard  Dhu-Heartach.  Mr.  David  Stevenson  related  to  me 
how  his  father  paced  the  offices  during  the  day,  and  his  own 
home  at  night,  unable  to  drown  his  thoughts  in  work  or  sleep. 
His  worry  was  intensified  as  the  true  character  of  the  gale 
came  to  his  ears.  He  had  planned  everything  with  such 
care  that  neither  life  nor  limb  of  a  single  workman  need  be 
jeopardized,  and  here  he  was  confronted  with  the  possi- 
bility of  losing  fourteen  men  at  one  stroke  !  The  iron 
barrack,  although  staunchly  constructed,  was  just  as  likely 
as  not  to  succumb  to  the  full  brunt  of  a  very  vicious  sou'- 
wester, so  there  was  every  excuse  for  his  anxiety.  He  gave 
orders  that  the  steam-tender  was  to  stand  by  with  steam 
raised,  so  as  to  make  a  dash  for  the  rock  upon  the  first  oppor- 


THE  LONELY  LIGHTS  OF  SCOTLAND  119 

tunity.  No  one  had  a  moment's  peace  until  at  last  the 
news  came  through  that  the  steam-tender  had  been  out  to 
the  rock,  and  with  much  difficulty  had  got  hold  of  the  four- 
teen men  and  brought  them  ashore,  somewhat  scared  and 
bearing  evidences  of  their  experience,  but  unharmed.  Mr. 
Stevenson  told  me  that  he  could  not  quite  say  which  was 
worse — the  distracted  wanderings  of  his  father,  or  the  ex- 
pression of  his  pent-up  feelings  when  he  met  the  unfortunate 
resident  a  few  days  later,  who  was  taken  severely  to  task 
for  his  flagrant  breach  of  orders,  whereby  the  lives  of  the 
workmen  had  been  imperilled  so  unnecessarily. 

The  year  1869  was  kinder  to  the  engineers,  and  great 
headway  was  made.  The  men  were  able  to  make  their 
first  landing  on  the  rock  as  early  as  March  25,  and  it  was 
accessible  up  to  October  29,  when  all  forces  withdrew  from 
the  scene  for  the  winter.  During  this  period  sixty  landings 
were  effected,  while  heavy  supplies  of  masonry  and  other 
materials  were  shipped  to  the  site.  The  masons  took  up 
their  permanent  residence  in  the  barrack  on  April  26,  and 
did  not  leave  it  until  September  3,  while  they  were  able  to 
squeeze  in  113  days  of  toil,  with  a  welcom.e  rest  from  their 
labours  on  Sundays.  The  excavations  for  the  foundations 
were  completed  speedily,  and  on  June  24  the  erection  of  the 
tower  was  commenced.  The  stones  were  brought  ready 
for  setting  in  position,  and  were  laid  so  rapidly  that  by  the 
end  of  the  month  two  courses  were  completed  and  the  third 
had  been  well  advanced.  Then  came  a  temporary  setback. 
A  blusterous  summer  gale  sprang  up,  and  the  sea,  after 
assaulting  the  rock  for  two  days,  succeeded  in  leaving  its 
mark.  The  crane  and  other  tackle  at  the  landing-stage 
were  washed  away,  while  fourteen  stones  laid  in  the  third 
course  were  uprooted,  of  which  eleven  were  seen  no  more. 
The  water  in  this  case  had  to  leap  upwards  for  35-!-  feet, 
while  the  stones  which  it  carried  away  weighed  2  tons 
apiece,  and  were  firmly  joggled,  so  that  the  wrench  which 
displaced  them  must  have  been  terrific  indeed. 

If  a  summer  gale  could  wreak  such  damage,  what  was  the 
dreaded  equinox  likely  to  achieve  ?     The  engineers  were  so 


120  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

much  impressed  that  they  thereupon  made  assurance  doubly 
sure  by  effecting  a  modification  of  the  original  plans.  When 
the  work  was  commenced,  it  was  intended  to  take  the  solid 
part  of  the  tower  up  to  a  height  of  52  feet  10  inches  above 
high-water.  The  effects  of  this  summer  gale  induced  them 
to  continue  the  solid  section  a  further  ii|  feet,  so  that  the 
entrance  level  is  64  feet  4  inches  above  high -water  mark. 
The  result  is  that  the  solid  base  of  the  Dhu-Heartach  tower 
weighs  no  less  than  1,840  tons — more  than  one-half  the  total 
weight  of  the  structure — and  is  executed  throughout  in 
massive  blocks  of  grey  granite. 

The  tower  contains  six  floors  above  the  entrance  hall, 
these,  on  ascending  the  spiral  staircase,  being  as  follows  : 
oil-store,  kitchen,  provision-store,  bedroom,  dry-room,  and 
light-room.  The  masonry  part  of  the  work  was  completed 
by  the  end  of  the  season  of  1871,  and  the  first-order  dioptric, 
fixed,  white  light  was  exhibited  on  November  i,  1872.  The 
focal  plane,  being  145  feet  above  the  water-level,  has  a  range 
of  eighteen  nautical  miles.  The  total  cost  of  the  work  was 
;^76,o84,  or  $380,420,  of  which  sum  the  shore  station  was 
responsible  for  £10,300,  or  $51,500. 

The  ocean  made  an  attempt  to  defeat  the  workmanship 
and  skill  of  the  engineers  in  the  very  winter  following  the 
opening  of  the  lighthouse.  On  the  lee  side  of  the  tower 
there  is  a  copper  lightning-conductor,  i  inch  thick  by  i|- 
inches  wide,  which  is  let  into  a  channel  cut  in  the  stone- 
work, so  that  it  comes  flush  with  the  face  of  the  building. 
This  conductor  is  fixed  at  intervals  of  5  feet  in  a  substantial 
manner.  The  winter  storms  of  1872  tore  some  10  feet  out 
of  this  channel  near  the  base  of  the  structure,  and  wrenched 
the  screws  from  their  sockets  ;  while  at  the  kitchen  window 
level,  which  is  92  feet  above  high-water,  the  rod  was  simi- 
larly disturbed  for  some  distance.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
waves  which  assail  Dhu-Heartach  are  by  no  means  to  be 
despised. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  FASTNET,  THE  OUTPOST  OF  EUROPE 

Four  and  a  half  miles  out  to  sea,  separated  from  Cape 
Clear,  the  most  south-westerly  point  of  Ireland,  by  a 
treacherous  channel,  rises  the  jagged,  formidable  shape  of 
the  Fastnet.  To  mariners  the  rock,  with  its  brilliant 
shaft  of  light  by  night,  has  developed  into  more  than  a 
mere  beacon.  It  is  the  first  and  last  light  of  the  Old  World 
on  the  eastward  and  westward  passages  across  the  Atlantic. 
All  passing  vessels  are  "  spoken  "  from  this  point  to  London, 
New  York,  and  elsewhere. 

It  was  in  the  early  fifties  of  the  past  century  that  the 
engineer  conceived  the  idea  of  planting  a  light  upon  this 
lonely  crag.  Maritime  interests  had  agitated  for  a  beacon 
for  many  years  previously,  since,  although  a  warning  gleam 
was  thrown  from  the  station  on  Cape  Clear,  this  ray  often 
was  invisible,  or  partially  obscured,  owing  to  the  wreaths 
of  cloud  and  mist  which  draped  the  summit  of  the  headland. 
The  builder  was  Mr.  George  Halpin,  engineer  to  the  Port 
of  Dublin  Corporation,  which  was  responsible  at  that  time 
for  the  illumination  of  the  shores  of  Ireland. 

His  task  was  not  to  be  despised.  The  Fastnet  itself  is 
merely  a  pinnacle,  rising  precipitously  to  a  height  of  about 
100  feet  above  low-water,  but  it  is  the  centre  of  many 
dangers.  It  is  flanked  on  all  sides  by  needle-points  and 
ridges;  the  currents  run  strongly,  and  the  tides  are  wicked, 
rendering  approach  uncertain  even  in  the  smoothest  weather. 

The  indefatigable  engineer  attacked  his  task  boldly.  He 
chose  the  highest  point  of  the  rock  as  the  site  for  his  tower, 
which  was  a  cast-iron  cylindrical  building,  91  feet  in  height. 
The  lantern  was  equipped  with  a  revolving  apparatus 
which   threw   a   flash   of   38,000    candle-power   for   fifteen 


122  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

seconds  once  every  two  minutes  from  an  elevation  of  148  feet, 
rotation  being  obtained  through  a  belt  and  a  weight-driven 
clock.  Its  erection  was  a  tedious  undertaking  ;  although 
a  start  was  made  in  1848,  it  was  not  until  January  i,  1854, 
that  the  light  first  cast  its  welcome  rays  over  the  wastes  of 
the  Atlantic,  by  which  time  £20,000,  or  $100,000,  had  been 
spent  upon  the  undertaking. 

For  ten  years  Halpin's  work  successfully  defied  the 
elements,  although  at  times  the  keepers  grew  somewhat 
apprehensive  concerning  its  stability.  Time  after  time, 
during  heavy  gales,  it  seemed  as  if  it  must  succumb  to  the 
storm.  The  waves  curled  up  the  cliff  and  struck  the  tower 
with  staggering  force,  causing  it  to  tremble  like  a  leaf.  On 
one  occasion  a  cup  of  coffee  standing  upon  the  table  was 
thrown  to  the  floor.  While  the  shaft  defied  the  most  severe 
poundings,  the  cliff  itself  gave  way,  and  large  masses  of  rock 
on  which  the  tower  stood  were  carried  away.  One  huge 
chunk,  weighing  some  3  tons,  was  detached,  and,  as  it 
slipped  down,  was  picked  up  by  the  next  incoming  wave, 
to  be  hurled  with  terrific  force  against  the  tower,  but  with- 
out inflicting  any  marked  damage.  On  another  occasion  a 
cask  containing  60  gallons  of  fresh  water,  which  the  keepers 
had  made  fast  to  the  railing  of  the  gallery  surrounding  the 
lantern,  133  feet  above  the  water,  was  wrenched  free  by  a 
wave  which  dashed  over  the  rock,  and  was  swept  away  as  if 
it  were  an  empty  tin.  The  keepers'  anxiety  under  these 
circumstances  may  be  understood. 

At  last,  in  April,  1865,  the  consulting  engineer  to  the 
Corporation  visited  the  lighthouse  in  company  with  Mr. 
George  Stevenson,  the  famous  Scottish  lighthouse  builder, 
to  examine  the  rock  thoroughly.  The  latter  suggested 
certain  recommendations  to  insure  the  stability  of  the  tower  ; 
but  when  the  sanction  of  the  Brethren  of  Trinity  House  was 
sought,  they  deferred  a  decision  until  their  own  engineer 
had  visited  the  works,  although  they  appreciated  Mr. 
Stevenson's  advice. 

Some  of  the  recommendations  advanced  by  Mr.  Stevenson 
were  followed  subsequently,  and  this  reluctant  recognition 


THE  FASTNET,  THE  OUTPOST  OF  EUROPE     123 

of  his  knowledge  brought  its  reward.  The  authorities — 
now  the  Commissioners  of  Irish  Lights — had  a  fright  in 
1881.  The  storms  of  that  winter  were  among  the  heaviest 
that  have  ever  assailed  the  British  Islands.  The  Calf  Rock 
light,  which  was  a  similar  tower  to  the  Fastnet,  and  which 
had  been  strengthened  upon  identical  lines,  came  to  grief. 
The  tower  was  broken  off  at  the  point  where  the  reinforce- 
ment ceased.  This  disaster  naturally  aroused  many  mis- 
givings concerning  the  luck  of  the  Fastnet.  Had  it  shared 
a  similar  fate  during  the  same  gale  ?  To  their  intense 
relief,  the  Commissioners  found  that  it  had  issued  from  the 
conflict  with  no  more  injuries  than  a  few  broken  panes  of 
glass. 

The  tower  withstood  the  attacks  of  wind  and  wave  suc- 
cessfully until  1 89 1,  when  the  Commissioners  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  was  time  the  Fastnet  light  was  improved, 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  busier  mercantile  traffic 
passing  the  point.  Accordingly,  Mr.  William  Douglass, 
the  engineer  to  the  Commissioners,  recommended  a  new 
tower,  fitted  with  the  latest  form  of  illumination,  so  as  to 
bring  it  into  line  with  the  other  leading  lights  of  the  world. 
He  advocated  a  tower  of  masonry  with  the  focal  plane 
at  an  elevation  of  159  feet ;  the  shaft,  147  feet  high,  spring- 
ing from  a  position  6  inches  below  high-water,  with  a 
diameter  at  the  base  of  42  feet.  The  cost  of  the  light  was 
estimated  at  £70,000  or  $350,000. 

One  cannot  help  admiring  the  daring  of  the  engineer, 
since  he  declined  to  be  assisted  by  the  rock  summit  in  his 
purpose.  Instead  he  preferred  the  ledge  of  a  chasm  on  the 
hardest  part  of  the  rock  below  high  -  tide,  and  directly 
exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  sea.  He  maintained  that 
such  a  tower,  planted  on  this  shelf,  would  receive  the  force 
of  the  heaviest  seas  before  they  rose  to  their  full  height ; 
also  by  building  the  base  of  the  tower  in  the  form  of  steps, 
as  in  the  case  of  a  breakwater,  an  excellent  buffer  would  be 
offered  to  the  rollers. 

The  new  design  came  at  an  opportune  moment.  Another 
inspection  of  the  existing  tower  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Scott,  the 


124  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

present  engineer-in-chief  to  the  Commissioners,  revealed  a 
parlous  state  of  affairs.  Halpin's  buUding  was  on  the  verge 
of  collapse.  Many  of  the  plates  in  the  upper  stories  had 
worked  loose  under  the  poundings  inflicted  by  the  seas,  and 
in  many  instances  the  bolts  holding  the  fabric  together 
were  sheared.  Repairs  had  to  be  made  hastily  to  enable 
the  old  tower  to  hold  out  until  the  new  lighthouse  was 
erected. 

Before  the  work  was  commenced,  the  designer,  as  a 
result  of  further  investigation,  decided  to  increase  the 
diameter  of  his  tower  to  52  feet  at  the  base.  The  lowest 
courses  did  not  comprise  complete  rings  of  masonry,  but 
were  anchored  at  the  points  where  the  circle  was  broken 
into  the  face  of  the  cliff,  so  as  to  form  an  integral  part 
thereof,  as  it  were.  The  depth  of  this  partial  ringwork  is 
26  feet,  at  which  level  the  first  complete  ring  of  masonry 
was  laid.  Thenceforward  the  tower  is  solid  throughout  its 
thickness  for  a  further  height  of  30  feet,  except  for  a  central 
circular  space  forming  the  water-tank,  which  holds  3,250 
gallons  of  water.  From  this  point  the  masonry  structure 
rises  gracefully  to  a  height  of  88|  feet  to  the  lantern  gallery. 
The  lighthouse  is  divided  into  eight  floors,  affording  living- 
rooms  for  the  keepers,  storerooms  for  oil,  fog-signals, 
provisions,  coal,  etc. 

The  lighthouse,  the  landing-stage,  and  other  appur- 
tenances, are  executed  in  Cornish  granite  throughout.  The 
blocks  were  fashioned  from  picked  stone  of  fine,  close,  hard 
grain,  and  ranged  up  to  4  and  5  tons  in  weight.  The  method 
of  construction  followed  the  approved  lines  of  to-day,  in 
which  each  stone  is  dovetailed  into  its  neighbour,  above, 
below,  and  on  either  side.  As  the  stones  were  cut  and 
fitted  in  the  Cornish  quarries,  they  were  set  up  and  fitted 
course  by  course.  Then,  when  they  had  met  the  approba- 
tion of  the  engineer  deputed  for  this  duty,  they  were  num- 
bered and  given  other  identification  marks,  so  that  upon 
reaching  the  base  at  Rock  Island,  upon  the  Irish  mainland, 
within  easy  reach  of  the  Fastnet,  they  could  be  despatched 
in  rotation  to  the  site,  to  be  set  in  position. 


THE  FASTNET,  THE  OUTPOST  OF  EUROPE     125 

It  was  in  August,  1896,  that  the  first  little  squad  of 
labourers  landed  on  the  Fastnet,  under  the  superintendence 
of  James  Kavanagh,  a  first-class  all-round  mason — one  of 
those  men  who  occupy  a  unique  position  when  emergency- 
calls.  He  was  just  the  type  of  foreman  that  the  task 
demanded,  careful,  daring,  a  hard  worker,  zealous,  dauntless. 
Once  he  had  landed  on  the  rock  to  prepare  the  foundations, 
he  seldom  left  it ;  and,  what  is  more,  every  stone  constituting 
the  tower  was  well  and  truly  laid  by  his  own  hand.  It  was 
indeed  unfortunate  that  Kavanagh,  after  his  momentous 
round  of  toil  was  over,  should  be  stricken  down  with 
apoplexy,  to  which  he  succumbed,  after  virtually  years  of 
imprisonment  upon  an  ill-famed  rock,  facing  discomforts 
and  privations  of  all  descriptions,  and  seizing  every  oppor- 
tunity to  drive  the  task  forward.  It  was  as  if  Nature, 
baffled  in  her  efforts  to  circumvent  the  work  of  human 
ingenuity,  had  taken  revenge  upon  the  man  who  had 
laboured  mightily  to  complete  her  subjection. 

Kavanagh  took  with  him  upon  the  rock  a  small  boiler 
and  steam-winch,  which  he  set  up  without  delay,  to  land 
both  workmen  and  necessaries.  He  lost  no  time  in  cutting 
away  at  the  toe  of  the  cliff,  to  admit  the  first  partial  ring 
of  stones.  It  was  a  ding-dong  battle  between  the  masons 
and  the  sea  for  the  first  few  rounds.  The  men  toOed 
heroically  with  their  chisels  between  the  coming  of  the 
roUers,  with  one  eye  on  the  water  and  the  other  on  a  handy 
life-line,  which  they  grabbed  when  the  Atlantic  endeavoured 
to  steal  a  march  upon  them.  On  some  days  splendid  pro- 
gress was  made;  on  others  the  masons  never  drove  the 
chisels  once  into  the  rock-face. 

Landing  was  an  exciting  experience  in  itself.  The  tender, 
naturally,  could  not  draw  right  in,  owing  to  the  swell  and 
other  dangers.  She  stood  off  a  little  way,  and  there 
anchored.  When  men  were  coming  to  or  going  from  the 
rock,  the  rope  was  run  out  from  the  derrick.  To  this  was 
attached  a  kind  of  double  stirrup,  not  unlike  a  child's 
swing.  The  men  took  up  their  position,  two  at  a  time,  on 
these  stirrups,  standing  face  to  face.      At  the  command, 


126  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

"  Lower  away  !"  or  "  Heave  ho  !"  the  derrick  winch  com- 
menced to  grunt  and  rattle,  and  the  men  were  whisked 
into  mid-air,  clutching  tightly  to  their  frail,  cramped  hold, 
and  steadied  in  their  aerial  journey  by  another  rope  ex- 
tending to  the  rowing-boat  below.  It  was  an  exciting  trip 
while  it  lasted,  and  at  first  glimpse  appeared  to  be  dangerous, 
so  much  so  that  on  one  or  two  occasions  the  courage  of  raw 
hands  broke  down  at  the  last  moment,  and  they  hesitated 
to  trust  themselves  to  such  a  flimsy-looking  vehicle. 

Bringing  the  stones  ashore  was  even  more  difficult.  It 
was  imperative  that  the  edges  and  corners  of  the  blocks 
should  be  protected  from  blows  which  might  chip  and  scar 
them,  thereby  impairing  their  true  fit,  and  possibly  allowing 
the  sea  to  get  a  purchase  in  its  efforts  to  destroy.  Accord- 
ingly, the  blocks  were  packed  in  skeleton  crates,  with  sub- 
stantial wooden  battens  completely  protecting  the  vital 
parts.  It  was  impossible  to  swing  them  singly  direct 
through  the  air  from  steamer  to  rock,  and  it  was  inad- 
visable to  transfer  them  first  to  a  rowing-boat ;  so  an  in- 
genious alternative  method  was  perfected.  The  tender  was 
brought  as  near  the  rock  as  possible,  and  the  derrick  boom 
was  swung  out,  so  that  a  hook  carried  at  the  end  of  the  rope 
could  be  attached  to  the  stone,  which  rested  on  rollers  upon 
the  tender's  deck  leading  to  an  open  doorway  in  the  taff- 
rail.  When  the  rope  was  secured,  the  word  was  given  to 
haul  in  the  derrick  rope  slowly  and  gently.  This  brought  the 
stone  gradually  to  the  vessel's  side,  when  it  was  permitted 
to  fall  into  the  water  where  it  could  suffer  no  injury.  The 
derrick  rope  meanwhile  was  wound  in,  and  the  stone,  still 
submerged,  at  last  brought  to  rest  against  the  side  of  the 
tower. 

A  vertical  series  of  wooden  battens  had  been  attached  to 
the  outside  of  the  building,  so  as  to  form  a  slide  up  which 
the  blocks  could  be  hauled  to  the  required  level.  Of  course, 
as  the  tower  increased  in  height,  the  latter  part  of  the  opera- 
tion had  to  be  varied,  owing  to  the  concave  curve  of  the 
structure.  Then  the  stone  had  to  complete  its  final  stage 
through  the  air,  being  steadied  in  its  ascent  by  a  rope  held 


THE  FASTNET,  THE  OUTPOST  OF  EUROPE     127 

below  to  prevent  it  swinging  and  coming  to  grief  against  the 
completed  part  of  the  shaft.  In  this  manner  2,074  stones, 
representing  a  dead-weight  of  4,633  tons,  were  landed  and 
set  in  position. 

Work  was  painfully  slow  and  tedious  at  times,  owing  to 
adverse  weather.  Although  the  men  on  the  rock  were  con- 
demned inevitably  to  periods  of  idleness,  they  were  made 
as  comfortable  as  conditions  would  permit,  so  as  to  remove 
any  longing  on  their  part  to  return  to  the  mainland  for  a 
change.  This  was  a  necessary  precaution.  Although  the 
men  might  leave  the  rock  in  perfectly  calm  weather,  the 
Atlantic  is  so  fickle  that  an  interval  of  two  or  three  hours 
was  quite  sufficient  to  permit  the  wind  to  freshen,  and  the 
swell  to  grow  restive,  to  such  a  degree  as  to  render  a  return 
to  the  rock  impossible  for  several  days.  Owing  to  the 
cramped  nature  of  the  quarters  on  the  rock,  elaborate  care 
had  to  be  exercised  to  protect  the  men  from  the  ravages 
of  disease.  The  toilers  had  to  board  themselves,  and  the 
authorities  demanded  that  each  man  should  maintain  a 
fortnight's  reserve  supply  of  provisions  upon  the  rock  to 
tide  him  over  a  spell  of  bad  weather.  This  rule  was  enforced 
very  rigidly,  any  infringement  of  it  being  attended  with 
instant  dismissal.  For  emergency  purposes  the  Commis- 
sioners maintained  a  small  stock  of  salt  beef,  pork,  tinned 
meats,  tea,  sugar,  milk,  biscuits,  and  so  forth,  on  the  rock, 
from  which  the  men  could  replenish  their  larders.  The 
foreman  acted  as  a  kind  of  medical  officer  of  health,  as  well 
as  fulfilling  his  other  duties.  He  was  supplied  with  a  ship's 
medicine-chest,  plenty  of  bandages,  liniment,  and  anti- 
septics, in  case  of  accident.  At  five  o'clock  every  morning 
the  men  were  compelled  to  tumble  out  of  their  bunks,  to 
indulge  in  a  thorough  wash,  to  turn  their  bedding  into  the 
air  when  the  weather  was  agreeable,  and  to  wash  out  their 
quarters.  The  strictest  supervision  was  maintained  over 
matters  pertaining  to  sanitation,  and,  thanks  to  these 
elaborate  precautions,  cases  of  sickness  were  very  few. 

Extreme  care  was  observed  in  the  building  operations, 
so  that  no  workman  might  be  exposed  to  any  unnecessary 


128  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

risks,  although  the  task  at  times  bristled  with  unavoidable 
perils.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  whole  enterprise  was 
attended  by  only  three  accidents  on  the  rock.  One  man 
was  cutting  a  tram-raU,  when  a  piece  of  steel  flew  into  one 
eye,  completely  blinding  it.  Another  suffered  a  similar 
calamity  from  a  chip  of  stone  while  quarrying.  The  third 
man  met  misfortune  while  at  work  at  the  windlass  of  the 
derrick.  As  a  breaker  rolled  in,  his  companion  dropped  his 
handle,  with  the  result  that  the  other  workman  was  knocked 
down  and  had  one  leg  broken.  There  was  a  true  Hibernian 
flavour  about  this  last-named  accident,  in  keeping  with  the 
setting  in  which  it  occurred.  The  man  was  incapacitated 
for  some  months,  and  then  brought  an  action  for  compensa- 
tion, claiming  that  he  had  been  rendered  unfit  for  any 
further  manual  labour.  The  sympathetic  court  solaced 
him  with  an  award  of  ;^350,  or  $1,750.  The  amazement  and 
disgust  of  the  engineer  may  be  imagined  when,  three  months 
after  the  action,  he  suddenly  espied  the  supposedly  totally 
incapacitated  workman  assisting  in  the  transference  of  coal 
from  a  barge  to  the  tender  ! 

As  the  tower  grew  above  the  existing  building,  which  it 
was  to  exceed  in  height,  it  obscured  the  light  thrown  from 
the  latter  in  a  certain  direction.  At  this  juncture,  accord- 
ingly, a  temporary  scaffolding  was  erected  upon  the  summit 
of  the  new  shaft,  on  which  were  rigged  two  ordinary  light- 
ship lights,  and  these  were  kept  going  until  the  new  lantern 
was  completed.  The  last  stone  was  set  on  June  3,  1903, 
after  some  four  years'  labour. 

During  the  winter  everything  was  brought  virtually  to  a 
standstill,  owing  to  the  succession  of  gales,  but  the  men  on 
the  rock  never  missed  an  opportunity  to  advance  the  under- 
taking. Kavanagh,  the  foreman,  absolutely  refused  to  go 
ashore  so  long  as  any  work  could  be  completed.  Often  he 
remained  on  the  Fastnet  the  whole  year  round,  and  never 
was  away  for  more  than  two  months  in  the  year,  when 
work  was  impossible.  Other  workmen,  when  they  had 
lived  down  the  first  feelings  of  loneliness,  became  imbued 
with  the  same  spirit,  and  appeared  loth  to  forsake  the  scene 


By  courfesj  of  the  "  Scientific  American. 
THE    FASTNET,   THE   OUTPOST   OF    EUROPE. 

On  the  top  of  the  rock  is  the  first  light,  opened  in  1854-     At  the  side  is  the  present  noble  tower, 
completed  in  1906.     The  flashing  beam  of  750,000  candle-power  has  a  range  of  20  miles. 


By  courtesy  o/Messrs,  Chance  Bros.  &•  Co.,  Ltd. 


THE    LAXTERX    OF   THE    FASTXET   ROCK    LIGHTHOUSE. 
It  consists  of  two  tiers  each  of  four  panels  of  920  millimetres  focal  distance. 


THE  FASTNET,  THE  OUTPOST  OF  EUROPE     129 

of  their  labours  even  for  a  day  or  two.  When  the  men 
settled  down  to  their  toil,  it  was  very  seldom  that  a  wish 
was  expressed  to  be  taken  ashore  more  than  once  in  three 
months. 

The  lantern  was  undertaken  directly  the  stonework  was 
completed.  The  landing  of  this  apparatus  was  an  exciting 
task,  for,  the  season  being  advanced,  it  was  decided  to 
run  unusual  risks,  lest  the  rock  should  become  unapproach- 
able. It  was  accomplished  successfully,  and  the  various 
parts  were  stored  on  the  rock  in  what  was  considered  a  safe 
place.  The  weather  looked  fine  and  gave  no  signs  of 
breaking  ;  yet  two  hours  after  all  had  been  inspected  and 
secured  for  the  night  a  terrific  gale  sprang  up,  and  the  rock 
was  enveloped  in  water,  which  dashed  right  over  it.  The 
waves  caught  some  of  the  lantern  apparatus  and  smashed 
it ;  other  parts  were  carried  away  and  never  seen  again. 
This  was  an  unexpected  catastrophe.  The  remaining 
damaged  parts  of  the  apparatus  were  sent  back  to  Birming- 
ham to  be  overhauled  and  the  missing  portions  replaced. 

As  there  was  no  possibility  of  being  able  to  complete  the 
lantern  that  winter,  and  the  authorities  did  not  like  to 
entrust  the  marking  of  the  rock  solely  to  the  temporary 
lightship  lights — the  lantern  of  the  Halpin  tower  had  been 
taken  down  meanwhile — it  was  thereupon  decided  to  erect 
the  dismantled  old  lamp  in  the  new  tower  for  the  time 
being. 

The  next  summer  the  new  apparatus  was  got  on  to  the 
rock  and  erected  safely.  The  light  is  of  the  dioptric  type, 
derived  from  a  series  of  incandescent  burners,  giving  a  total 
power  of  1,200  candles.  This  part  of  the  installation  is  the 
invention  of  the  chief  engineer  to  the  Commissioners,  Mr. 
C.  W.  Scott,  and  it  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  perfect 
and  economical  devices  of  this  type  yet  submitted  to  prac- 
tical operations.  The  oil  is  vaporized  by  being  passed 
through  a  spraying  device  under  pressure,  similar  to  the 
forced  carburation  in  automobile  practice,  and  the  gas  is 
fed  to  the  Bunsen  burners.  The  lenses,  together  with  their 
revolving  apparatus,  weigh  13,440  pounds,  and  rotate  upon 

9 


I30  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

a  bed  of  mercury  under  the  fall  of  a  weight  of  290  pounds, 
which  descends  40  feet  per  hour,  this  being  sufficient  to 
secure  three  complete  revolutions  per  minute.  In  case  the 
incandescent  gas  installation  should  break  down  from  any 
cause,  a  four-wick  oil-burner  is  held  in  reserve,  and  can  be 
brought  into  action  instantly.  The  power  of  the  rays 
thrown  from  the  1,200  candle-power  burners  is  intensified 
by  the  lenses  to  some  750,000  candle-power,  of  extremely 
white  brilliancy,  recalling  the  beam  thrown  by  an  electric 
searchlight.  The  flash,  of  three-twenty-fifths  of  a  second's 
duration,  recurs  every  five  seconds,  and  on  a  clear  night  the 
light  is  readily  distinguishable  from  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles,  while  its  reflection  in  the  sky  may  be  observed  from  a 
considerably  greater  distance. 

The  erection  of  this  lighthouse  was  not  without  one 
humorous  incident.  While  the  lantern  apparatus  was  being 
set  in  position,  a  plumber  was  sent  to  the  rock.  He  spent 
one  day  and  night  there,  a  period  that  proved  to  be  more 
than  enough  for  him.  The  murmuring  of  the  waves  lost 
all  their  musical  glamour  for  him  when  he  was  imprisoned 
on  a  wild,  isolated,  wind-and-wave-swept  eyrie.  He  did 
not  get  a  wink  of  sleep,  and  was  scared  nearly  out  of  his 
wits.  When  morning  broke,  and  the  men  were  turned  out 
of  their  bunks,  the  plumber  expressed  his  fixed  determina- 
tion to  return  to  the  shore  at  once.  His  companions  laughed 
at  his  fears,  ridiculed  his  anxieties,  coaxed  and  upbraided 
him  in  turn.  It  was  of  no  avail.  He  would  not  do  another 
stroke  of  work.  Realizing  the  hopelessness  of  such  a  work- 
man, the  engineer  in  charge  signalled  the  mainland  for 
assistance.  The  steamer  could  not  put  out,  but  the  life- 
boat, not  understanding  the  import  of  such  an  unusual  call, 
made  the  dangerous  pull  to  the  rock,  to  ascertain  what  was 
the  matter.  When  they  found  that  it  was  to  take  off  a 
scared  workman,  their  feelings  may  be  imagined.  The 
demoralized  plumber  was  bundled  into  the  lifeboat  and 
rowed  back  to  shore.  The  blood  did  not  return  to  his  face, 
nor  did  he  collect  his  scattered  wits,  until  he  planted  his 
two  feet  firmly  on  the  mainland,  when  he  very  vehemently 


THE  FASTNET,  THE  OUTPOST  OF  EUROPE     131 

and  picturesquely  expressed  his  determination  never  to 
accept  a  job  in  such  a  forsaken  place  again. 

The  old  tower  was  reduced  to  the  level  of  its  solid  base, 
and  converted  into  an  oil-store.  The  finishing  touches  were 
applied  to  the  new  tower,  and  on  June  27,  1906,  the  scintil- 
lating and  penetrating  ray  of  the  present  Fastnet  was  shown 
for  the  first  time.  It  is  a  magnificent  light,  and,  being  the 
latest  expression  of  British  lighthouse  engineering  upon  a 
large  scale,  compels  more  than  passing  interest.  The  light 
is  fully  in  keeping  with  the  importance  of  the  spot  it  marks, 
and  the  ;^84,ooo,  or  $420,000,  which  it  cost  has  been  laid 
out  to  excellent  purpose.  The  light  and  fog-signal  station 
is  tended  by  six  keepers,  four  being  on  the  rock  simul- 
taneously, and  two  ashore.  The  latter  constitute  the  relief, 
which  is  made  twice  a  month  if  the  weather  permits,  the 
service  being  one  month  on  the  rock,  followed  by  a  fort- 
night on  shore.  One  keeper  has  day  duty,  maintaining  a 
lookout  for  fog  and  to  signal  passing  ships ;  two  are  on 
duty  at  night,  the  one  having  charge  of  the  light  and  its 
operation,  while  his  comrade  devotes  his  attention  to  signal- 
ling ships  and  watching  the  weather.  When  a  mist  creeps 
over  the  light,  the  fourth  keeper  is  called  up  to  manipulate 
the  explosive  fog-signal.  The  lighthouse,  being  an  important 
landfall,  is  a  signalling-station  for  Lloyd's,  and  is  also  fitted 
with  wireless  telegraphy,  wherewith  the  movements  of  out- 
going and  incoming  vessels  are  reported  to  the  mainland 
for  notification  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  X 

LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND 

While  the  greater  number  of  the  most  famous  sea-lights 
have  been  erected  upon  the  solid  foundation  offered  by 
rock,  in  one  or  two  instances  notable  works  have  been  con- 
summated upon  sand.  The  two  most  remarkable  achieve- 
ments in  this  particular  field  of  enterprise  are  the  Rother- 
sand  lighthouse,  off  the  coast  of  Germany,  in  the  North 
Sea,  and  the  Fourteen  Foot  Bank,  in  Delaware  Bay,  U.S.A. 

The  Rothersand  light  became  necessary  owing  to  the 
expansion  of  the  German  mercantile  marine  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ports  of  the  Weser  and  Elbe.  The  estuary  of 
the  Weser  River  is  hemmed  in  by  shoals  and  sandbanks, 
similar  to  those  found  at  the  entrance  to  Liverpool,  London, 
and  New  York,  rendering  navigation  extremely  hazardous 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances.  Bremerhaven, 
on  the  Weser,  had  been  selected  as  the  home  port  for  the 
North  German  Lloyd  Atlantic  liners,  but  it  was  threatened 
with  abandonment  unless  the  entrance  to  the  waterway 
should  undergo  improvement.  It  was  of  no  avail  to  dredge 
a  deep  channel  through  the  treacherous  ridges  of  sand,  if 
the  general  proximity  of  the  shoal  were  left  unmarked. 
Consequently,  in  order  to  secure  the  interests  of  Bremer- 
haven, it  was  decided  by  the  three  border  States — Prussia, 
Oldenburg,  and  Bremen — to  provide  a  powerful  light  at 
this  danger-point.  The  financial  problem  was  solved  by 
the  agreement  to  levy  a  special  tax  upon  all  vessels  entering 
the  Weser,  to  defray  the  cost  of  providing  the  safeguard. 

The  undertaking  was  somewhat  formidable.  The  shoal, 
being  of  soft  sand,  was  liable  to  erosion  and  movement, 
owing  to  jQuctuating  and  changing  currents.  Then,  again, 
the  proposed  site,  some  thirty  miles  from  Bremerhaven  and 

132 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  133 

about  halfway  between  that  port  and  the  island  of  Heligo- 
land, was  exposed  to  the  assaults  of  the  North  Sea,  where 
even  slight  breezes  ruffle  the  water  considerably.  From  the 
soundings  and  observations  that  were  made,  it  was  evident 
that  the  foundations  would  have  to  be  carried  down  to  a 
great  depth,  and  that  ordinary  systems  of  construction 
were  quite  impracticable.  At  this  juncture  the  Society 
Harkort  of  Duisburg,  which  had  accumulated  great  ex- 
perience in  subaqueous  work,  was  approached  and  asked  if 
it  would  undertake  the  enterprise  at  its  own  risk.  This  was 
tantamount  to  a  "  no  cure,  no  pay  "  proposal.  If  they 
succeeded,  they  would  be  rewarded  for  their  labours  ;  if 
they  failed,  they  would  have  to  face  a  heavy  loss. 

This  firm,  after  careful  deliberation,  allowed  that  the 
work  could  be  accomplished,  but  in  one  way  only.  This 
was  to  construct  a  huge  caisson — practically  a  gigantic 
barrel  of  steel — on  shore,  to  launch  and  tow  it  to  the  site, 
and  there  to  lower  it  until  it  rested  on  the  bottom.  Then, 
by  a  removal  of  the  sand  from  beneath  this  caisson,  it  could 
be  sunk  to  a  great  depth,  and,  the  interior  being  filled  with 
concrete,  a  huge  artificial  core  of  rock  would  be  created, 
capable  of  supporting  a  tower.  This  system  is  employed 
extensively  in  connection  with  bridge-building  operations, 
and  the  firm  entertained  no  doubts  concerning  its  feasi- 
bility at  Rothersand.  The  society  accordingly  prepared 
its  designs,  and  advanced  an  estimate  for  the  cost  of  the 
work. 

At  this  juncture  an  unexpected  competitor  appeared  on 
the  scene.  One  of  the  engineers  engaged  in  the  preparation 
of  the  Harkort  designs  severed  his  connection  with  that  firm, 
and,  securing  the  collaboration  of  two  engineering  colleagues, 
established  a  rival  concern,  which  tendered  for  the  contract. 
They  would  follow  the  same  lines,  but  would  complete  it 
for  ;^22,75o,  or  $113,750,  instead  of  £24,025,  or  $120,125, 
asked  by  the  Duisburg  firm.  The  lower  price  was  accepted, 
the  more  readily  since  it  included  the  foundations,  whereas 
the  Society  Harkort  set  these  down  as  an  extra.  Naturally, 
the  society  was  somewhat  chagrined  at  this  turn  of  events, 


134  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

after  all  the  trouble  and  care  it  had  taken  to  discover  the 
most  satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem,  but  subsequently 
it  had  good  reason  not  to  regret  its  loss. 

The  new  engineers  set  to  work  and  during  the  winter  of 
1880-81  constructed  a  huge  caisson,  which  was  launched 
and  on  May  22  of  the  latter  year  started  down  the  Weser  in 
charge  of  tugs.  Then  came  a  whole  string  of  accidents. 
One  night  the  unwieldy  fabric  got  adrift  and  drove  its  nose 
into  a  sandbank,  where  it  settled  down  with  the  tide.  The 
towing  cables  were  attached  once  more,  and  after  a  great 
struggle  the  structure  was  extricated  on  the  next  high-tide, 
and  resumed  its  journey.  Reaching  the  site  without  further 
incident,  it  was  lowered  by  admitting  the  water  within  the 
barrel.  But  this  task  being  accomplished  somewhat  crudely, 
the  water  rushed  in  with  such  force  that  the  caisson  com- 
menced to  spin  round  like  a  top,  as  well  as  bobbing  up  and 
down  like  an  angler's  float.  It  threatened  to  topple  over 
and  founder  every  moment,  but,  luckily  keeping  upright, 
finally  touched  bottom.  Lowering  was  completed.  Night 
having  approached,  workmen  made  themselves  comfort- 
able on  the  caisson,  while  the  constructional  steamer  stood 
off  and  cast  its  anchor. 

The  men  on  the  caisson,  however,  experienced  one  of  the 
most  sensational  nights  in  their  lives.  As  the  tide  rose, 
they  found  their  novel  home  to  be  behaving  somewhat 
curiously.  It  moved,  and  then  heeled  over.  This  was  an 
alarming  state  of  affairs,  especially  as  the  list  gradually 
became  worse  and  worse.  They  shouted  frantically  for 
help,  but,  a  heavy  fog  having  descended  upon  the  shoal, 
their  cries  were  absorbed  by  the  white  pall.  At  last  the 
caisson  careened  over  to  such  a  degree  that  the  men  could 
not  keep  their  feet,  while  the  depressed  edge  was  in  danger 
of  being  submerged.  The  men  crawled  to  the  opposite  or 
elevated  side,  and  held  on  for  their  lives,  expecting  every 
moment  that  the  structure  would  give  a  heave  and  roll  over. 
It  was  a  terribly  anxious  time  for  them,  and  at  last,  when 
the  constructional  steamer  came  alongside  in  the  morning, 
they  scuttled  down  the  ropes  from  their  perilous  perch  to  the 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  135 

deck  below,  thankful  for  having  escaped,  as  they  thought, 
a  certain  watery  grave. 

The  engineers  spared  no  effort  to  save  their  work.  They 
were  harassed  at  every  tide  because  the  water  rose  above 
the  depressed  edge  and  flooded  the  interior.  With  all 
speed  the  wall  at  this  point  was  increased  in  height,  so  as  to 
prevent  inundation.  Then,  stormy  weather  having  cut 
away  the  sand  under  the  elevated  side,  the  structure 
gradually  righted  itself.  When  it  had  regained  its  vertical 
position,  it  was  found  that  no  serious  damage  had  been 
done,  but  rather  that  the  engineers  had  profited,  inasmuch 
as  the  caisson  had  buried  itself  some  16  feet  into  the  sand. 

Winter  was  approaching,  and  so  the  engineers  crowded  on 
every  man  and  effort  possible,  in  order  to  get  the  structure 
sunk  to  the  requisite  level  before  work  would  have  to  be 
abandoned  for  the  season.  They  departed  from  the 
engineer's  axiom,  "Make  haste  slowly,"  and  paid  the 
penalty.  When  the  bad  weather  broke,  compelling  the 
return  of  all  the  workmen  to  shore,  the  fabric  was  left 
insecure.  The  lower  part  had  been  given  its  filling  of 
concrete,  but  above  a  certain  level  the  fabric  depended 
only  upon  the  iron  shell  of  the  cylinder.  It  was  stiffened 
as  much  as  possible  with  cross-timbers  and  bracing,  but  the 
elements  soon  made  short  work  of  this  puny  defence.  The 
North  Sea,  in  common  with  the  other  large  stretches  of 
water  throughout  the  world,  was  swept  by  terrible  storms 
that  winter,  and  one  morning,  when  the  sea  was  scanned 
from  shore  through  glasses,  strange  to  say  the  caisson  was 
nowhere  to  be  seen.  All  sorts  of  rumours  were  circulated 
to  account  for  its  disappearance,  among  others  being  a 
sensational  theory  that  the  caisson,  having  reached  swampy 
ground  while  being  sunk,  had  simply  dropped  suddenly  into 
the  submarine  quagmire,  and  had  been  swallowed  up  com- 
pletely. But  the  divers,  when  they  could  get  out  to  the  site 
and  could  venture  into  the  ocean  depths,  returned  to  the 
surface  with  a  very  different  story.  The  waves  had  snapped 
off  the  top  of  the  caisson  at  the  upper  level  of  the  concrete 
within,  and  had  carried  it  away.    Thus  ended  summarily 


136  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

the  first  attempt  to  build  a  lighthouse  upon  the  red  sand 
at  the  entrance  to  the  River  Weser. 

The  project,  however,  was  not  abandoned.  The  Society 
Harkort  was  approached  once  more,  and  requested  to  under- 
take the  work  upon  its  own  terms.  The  invitation  was 
accepted,  but  the  firm,  realizing  the  abnormal  risks  in- 
cidental to  the  enterprise,  revised  their  price,  so  as  to  pro- 
vide for  contingencies.  It  demanded  a  sum  of  £42,650,  or 
$213,250,  in  return  for  which  it  undertook  to  supply  a 
fully-equipped  lighthouse  less  the  illuminating  apparatus. 
The  terms  were  accepted,  but  the  responsible  authorities, 
having  suffered  a  heavy  loss  from  the  first  failure,  decided 
to  protect  themselves  against  a  similar  disaster,  so  exacted 
a  bond  for  £12,000,  or  $60,000,  to  be  returned  when  the 
work  should  be  completed  and  accepted  by  the  Government. 
The  Society  Harkort,  on  its  part,  reserved  the  right  to 
withdraw  from  the  undertaking  in  the  event  of  the  caisson 
sharing  the  fate  which  overtook  the  first  structure. 

The  contracts  were  signed  in  September,  1882,  and  the 
task  was  commenced.  The  first  disaster  was  a  blessing  in 
disguise,  for  the  new  engineers  were  able  to  turn  the  mis- 
takes of  their  predecessors  to  advantage.  They  designed  a 
caisson  of  oval  shape,  with  pointed  ends,  measuring  46  feet 
in  length  by  36  feet  wide.  It  was  an  elaborate,  staunch 
structure,  towering  to  a  height  of  6of  feet  when  launched. 
At  a  height  of  8  feet  from  the  bottom  edge  was  a  massive 
flooring  built  of  iron.  The  space  below  constituted  the 
area  in  which  the  men  were  to  work  upon  the  sea-bed, 
excavating  the  sand  under  compressed  air,  while  the  lower 
rim  was  a  cutting  edge,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  sinking  of  the 
mass  as  the  sand  was  removed.  The  upper  part  of  the 
caisson  was  divided  into  four  floors,  each  of  which  was  set 
aside  for  a  specific  purpose.  The  lowest  was  the  concrete- 
mixing  chamber  ;  that  above  carried  the  machinery  and 
boilers  ;  the  third  floor  formed  the  living-quarters  for  the 
men  who  worked  and  slept  on  the  structure  ;  while  the  top 
floor  formed  a  deck,  and  carried  two  powerful  cranes 
whereby  the  material  was  lifted  from  the  boats  which  drew 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  137 

alongside.  Of  course,  when  the  caisson  had  been  lowered 
into  the  water  and  was  eating  its  way  deeper  and  deeper 
into  the  sand,  these  platforms  had  to  be  moved  higher  and 
higher  from  time  to  time,  as  the  base  of  the  tun  became 
filled  with  concrete,  the  outer  walls  of  the  fabric  being 
increased  to  keep  the  top  well  above  high-water  mark. 

When  the  caisson  was  completed  on  shore  and  sent  into 
the  water,  it  was  an  impressive-looking  monster.  The  shell 
itself  weighed  245-|-  tons,  and  with  the  various  accessories 
aboard  the  weight  was  brought  up  to  some  335  tons.  It 
then  had  to  be  loaded  down  to  the  required  depth  for  tow- 
ing, for  which  purpose  ballast  in  the  form  of  pig-iron, 
concrete,  and  bricks,  to  the  extent  of  another  245  tons,  was 
stowed  aboard,  while  delicate  precautions  were  taken  to 
maintain  stability.  The  combined  efforts  of  120  men, 
working  day  and  night  for  127  days,  were  required  to  erect 
this  caisson,  and  on  April  i,  1883,  it  was  ready  for  its 
transportation  to  the  site. 

The  towing  operation  was  extremely  difficult,  and  the 
voyage  out  was  full  of  exciting  incident.  It  was  possible 
to  advance  only  on  the  ebb-tide,  and  the  towing  cables, 
5  inches  in  diameter,  were  specially  manufactured  for  the 
operation.  Two  of  the  most  powerful  tugs  owned  by  the 
North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Company  were  requisi- 
tioned, three  other  steamers  engaged  in  the  conveyance  of 
requirements  between  tower  and  shore  accompanying  the 
procession.  Although  the  engineers  were  ready,  the  weather, 
with  aggravating  persistence,  refused  to  clear  sufficiently  to 
produce  the  smooth  sea  and  calm  demanded  for  the  safe 
journey  of  the  ungainly  craft.  Day  after  day  slipped  by, 
with  eighty  men  on  the  alert,  and  with  fires  banked  and 
steam  raised  on  the  vessels,  ready  to  weigh  anchor  at  the 
first  favourable  moment.  Fifty-five  days  passed  before  the 
weather  bureau  recommended  that  the  conditions  were 
suitable.  Under  the  foregoing  circumstances  the  expense 
of  this  delay  may  be  realized. 

Directly  the  intimation  was  conveyed  that  the  tow  could 
be  attempted,  there  was  a  scene  of  indescribable  activity  and 


138  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

bustle  in  the  Bremerhaven  dock,  where  the  caisson  was 
moored.  Full  steam  was  raised  on  the  tugs,  and  at  half- 
past  three  in  the  morning  of  May  26  the  mighty  steel  barrel 
moved  out  of  the  dock.  The  towing  ropes  were  hitched 
on,  and  very  slowly  the  "  Colossus,"  as  the  caisson  was 
named,  moved  down  the  harbour,  accompanied  by  the 
whole  fleet  of  nine  vessels  engaged  in  construction  work, 
so  that  the  procession  was  imposing.  It  dropped  down  the 
river  without  incident,  when,  the  tide  turning,  anchor  was 
cast,  and  all  was  made  fast  until  another  advance  could  be 
made  at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  But  the  rising  tide 
was  stronger  than  had  been  anticipated,  and  trouble  was 
soon  encountered.  The  caisson,  pressed  by  the  current, 
dragged  and  strained  at  the  two  tugs  by  which  she  was 
being  towed,  causing  them  to  slip  their  anchors.  It  was 
an  anxious  moment.  The  two  vessels  could  not  hold  the 
"  Colossus  ";  in  fact,  they  were  being  towed  backwards  by 
it.  Hurriedly  another  tug  was  called  up,  and  helped  in  the 
effort ;  but  although  the  three  steamers  put  on  full  steam 
ahead,  they  failed  to  keep  the  mass  in  check.  Another  tug 
was  signalled,  and  then,  under  the  combined  effort  of  350 
horse-power,  driving  for  all  it  was  worth  against  the  current, 
the  four  vessels  mastered  the  swing  of  the  scurrying  water, 
and  had  the  "  Colossus  "  under  control. 

A  little  later  the  procession  continued  on  its  way  to  the 
North  Sea,  but  when  the  boats  came  up  with  the  Hoheweg 
lighthouse  further  disquieting  news  was  received.  The 
keepers  signalled  that  the  barometer  was  falling,  and  that 
a  thunderstorm  was  hurrying  across  the  North  Sea  from 
England.  Anchors  were  thrown  out  hurriedly,  and  every- 
thing made  snug  and  tight  for  the  approaching  storm.  It 
burst  with  fearful  severity.  The  waves  got  up,  the  wind 
blew  with  fiendish  velocity  in  terrifying  gusts,  and  the  rain 
tumbled  down  in  sheets.  The  engineers  were  on  tenter- 
hooks the  whole  hour  and  a  half  the  storm  raged,  as  they 
foresaw  lively  times  if  the  unmanageable  hulk  broke  loose. 
But  the  "  Colossus  "  rode  the  gale  as  quietly  as  if  moored 
to  a  wharf  in  dock.     The  storm,  however,  upset  all  calcula- 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  139 

tions  for  the  day.  There  was  no  possibiHty  of  getting  the 
caisson  out  and  sunk  before  nightfall,  so  the  engineers  pre- 
pared to  pass  the  night  at  anchor,  and  to  start  off  again 
with  the  dawn.  The  weather,  ruffled  by  the  thunderstorm, 
refused  to  settle  down  until  a  further  day  and  night  had  been 
wasted.  Then,  at  7.30  in  the  morning,  on  a  favourable 
tide,  anchors  were  weighed,  and,  steaming  hard  through  a 
broken  sea,  the  tugs  conveyed  the  caisson  on  its  journey. 
At  last  the  procession  reached  the  buoy  marking  the  site. 
The  caisson  was  brought  to  rest,  the  water  was  admitted 
gently  through  the  valves,  and  slowly,  steadily,  and  ver- 
tically, the  shell  sank  lower  and  lower,  until  a  scarcely 
perceptible  shock  conveyed  the  intimation  that  it  had 
touched  bottom. 

The  most  anxious  part  of  the  task  was  consummated  with 
complete  success  :  the  caisson  had  been  got  to  the  site  and 
sunk.  Then  the  task  of  burying  it  deeply  and  irremovably 
in  the  sand  was  hurried  forward.  Workmen  descended  into 
the  space  beneath  the  bottom  floor  and  the  sea-bed.  Under 
compressed  air  they  excavated  the  sand  within  the  area 
to  permit  the  cutting  edge  to  sink  lower  and  lower.  The 
sand,  as  removed,  was  lifted  to  the  top  of  the  "  Colossus  " 
and  discharged  overboard.  Meanwhile  the  concrete-mixing 
machine  got  busy,  and  the  stone  heart  of  the  tun  was 
fashioned  rapidly.  Under  this  increasing  weight  the  sinking 
operation  was  assisted  very  appreciably.  By  the  middle 
of  October  the  work  had  been  advanced  to  such  a  stage  that 
the  total  weight  of  the  structure  had  been  increased  to  over 
3,350  tons,  and  the  top  deck  of  the  caisson,  which  had  grown 
in  height  by  the  attaching  of  successive  rings  of  plates, 
was  about  99  feet  above  the  cutting  edge,  which  had  buried 
itself  to  a  depth  of  51  feet  below  low-water.  Then  work 
had  to  be  abandoned,  as  the  autumnal  gales  sprang  up. 
The  whole  of  the  staff,  with  the  exception  of  two  men,  who 
mounted  guard  over  the  work,  were  taken  back  to  Bremer- 
haven.  The  gales  increased  in  fury,  culminating  in  a  tempest 
similar  to  that  which  had  destroyed  the  first  caisson.  Re- 
membering the  fate  of  that  enterprise  under  such  fearful 


I40  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

pounding  from  wind  and  wave,  the  Harkort  engineers 
naturally  were  somewhat  anxious  concerning  the  welfare 
of  their  handiwork  under  identical  conditions.  But  the 
new  creation  was  overwhelmingly  strong  where  its  prede- 
cessor was  weak,  although  the  seas,  baffled  in  their  efforts 
to  upset  the  caisson,  did  not  fail  to  leave  their  mark  by 
knocking  the  superstructure  and  scaffolding  about  some- 
what, as  well  as  carrying  away  a  few  weighty  pieces  of  the 
top  hamper. 

Work  was  resumed  in  February,  1884,  and  continued 
more  or  less  regularly  until  November.  Interruptions  were 
of  frequent  occurrence,  so  that  only  about  one-quarter  of 
the  time  available  could  be  turned  to  useful  account.  The 
structure  which  had  been  towed  out  of  Bremerhaven  a  year 
previously  had  disappeared  from  sight,  the  rim  of  the  barrel 
built  on  dry  land  being  about  4  feet  below  water  ;  but,  of 
course,  as  the  work  proceeded  and  the  caisson  sank,  its  walls 
were  extended  upwards,  as  already  explained.  When  the 
structure  had  been  sunk  to  its  designed  depth,  the  steel  shell 
was  loyi  feet  in  height,  from  the  cutting  edge  to  the  top 
projecting  above  the  water,  and  nearly  40  feet  of  its  height 
was  buried  in  the  Rothersand.  To  sink  it  to  this  level 
required  the  removal  of  3,000  cubic  yards  of  sand  from  be- 
neath the  bottom  floor  of  the  structure  ;  while  49,100  tons 
of  material  were  brought  out  from  Bremerhaven  and  built 
into  the  steel  shell  to  render  it  a  solid  elliptical  mass,  with 
the  exception  of  a  short  central  hollow  space  which  has 
a  narrow  conduit  connection  with  the  outer  sea,  and  which, 
fitted  with  a  float,  acts  as  a  tide-gauge  which  may  be  read 
in  the  lighthouse.  From  this  massive  concrete  pedestal  rises 
the  tower  proper,  which  at  the  base  is  circular,  with  a 
diameter  of  33!  feet.  This  base  rises  in  the  form  of  a  grace- 
ful concave  curve  to  a  height  of  26  feet,  and  is  solid  except 
for  two  water-tanks.  At  the  entrance  level  the  tower  is 
23  feet  in  diameter.  Above  this  are  disposed  four  floors, 
comprising  the  cellar,  storeroom,  kitchen,  and  living-quarters 
for  the  men,  crowned  by  the  lantern,  the  gallery  of  which  is 
8o-|-  feet  above  low-water. 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  141 

The  external  appearance  of  this  interesting  lighthouse  is 
somewhat  different  from  the  general  conception  of  such  a 
building.  Instead  of  being  merely  a  circular  top  and  lantern, 
there  are  three  semicircular  turret-like  projections  on  the 
dwelling-room  and  lantern  levels,  which  serve  for  directing 
and  warning  lights  as  well  as  for  a  lookout  station. 

The  fickle  character  of  the  North  Sea  where  it  rolls  over 
the  Rothersand  is  reflected  by  an  experience  which  befell 
the  Harkort  engineer  and  the  superintendent  of  erection 
for  the  authorities,  who  wished  to  complete  his  duty  of 
inspection.  The  finishing  touches  were  being  applied,  a 
squad  of  twelve  workmen  being  in  the  tower  to  continue 
the  work  during  the  winter.  The  early  December  day  was 
fair  and  the  sea  smooth,  as  well  as  giving  every  indication 
of  remaining  quiescent  for  some  hours.  The  superintendent 
had  arranged  to  spend  his  Christmas  holidays  with  some 
friends,  and  desired  to  complete  his  duty  in  good  time,  so 
that  his  sojourn  might  be  free  from  care.  The  two  started 
off  in  the  steamer,  and  landed  without  effort.  But  while 
they  were  engaged  in  their  work  of  inspection  the  wind 
and  sea  freshened,  so  that  a  boat  could  not  be  sent  from 
the  steamer  to  take  them  off.  It  was  an  amusing  situation 
which  was  keenly  enjoyed  at  Bremerhaven  ;  but  all  would 
be  right  on  the  morrow,  said  everyone.  But  the  next  day 
the  weather  was  worse,  and  continued  so  for  day  after  day. 
When  a  fortnight  had  passed  without  it  being  possible  to 
succour  the  weather-bound  engineers,  amusement  gave  way 
to  anxiety,  more  especially  as  a  signal  was  flying  from  the 
tower  which  conveyed  the  unwelcome  intelligence  that  one 
of  the  workmen  had  fallen  ill.  The  feelings  of  the  super- 
intendent may  be  imagined.  He  had  visions  of  spending 
his  Yuletide  in  a  draughty,  half-finished  lighthouse  tower, 
where  comfort  was  conspicuous  by  its  absence,  and  where 
seasonal  fare  such  as  he  had  been  anticipating  keenly  was 
unknown.  But  on  December  21  the  constructional  engin- 
eers, having  grown  impatient  with  the  weather,  sent  out 
one  of  their  boats,  with  instructions  to  bring  everyone 
ashore  at  all  hazards.    The  waves  were  running  high  and 


142  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

the  wind  was  gusty,  but  the  steamer  anchored  as  near  the 
lighthouse  as  she  dared,  and  by  means  of  her  boats,  which 
were  in  momentary  danger  of  being  swamped,  brought  off 
the  two  engineers  as  well  as  all  the  workmen  except  two. 
The  latter  remained  behind  as  a  guard,  and,  being  given  a 
good  stock  of  seasonal  provisions  and  other  necessities,  were 
left  in  their  splendid  isolation.  The  superintendent,  after 
all,  was  able  to  enjoy  his  Christmas  holidays. 

The  succeeding  spring  brought  a  resumption  of  toil,  and 
by  September  the  tower  was  completed  except  for  the 
illuminating  apparatus.  One  feature  was  observed  during 
construction  and  had  to  receive  attention.  The  free  swing 
of  the  currents  and  tides,  being  obstructed  by  the  tower, 
had  commenced  heavy  erosion,  big  hollows  being  scooped 
out  of  the  soft  sea-bed  around  the  caisson.  As  it  was  quite 
possible  that  in  the  course  of  time  this  scouring  might  im- 
peril the  safety  of  the  building,  protective  works  had  to  be 
undertaken.  These  were  of  an  elaborate  character,  and 
comprised  the  sinking  of  mattresses,  fashioned  from  brush- 
wood, around  the  foundations,  upon  which  were  dumped 
boatloads  of  broken  stone.  This  mattress  had  to  be  nearly 
50  feet  in  width,  and  in  some  places  about  15  feet  in  thick- 
ness. For  this  protective  work  alone  some  176,550  cubic 
feet  of  brushwood,  and  600  tons  of  block-stone  to  hold  it 
down,  were  used.  These  measures,  however,  effectually 
overcame  the  danger  of  erosion. 

On  November  i,  1885,  the  light  was  shown  for  the  first 
time,  and  the  greatest  peril  at  the  entrance  to  the  Weser 
was  indicated  far  and  wide  by  night  and  day.  It  was  a 
magnificent  achievement,  carried  through  in  the  face  of 
enormous  difficulties,  sensational  incidents  innumerable, 
and  upon  a  foundation  of  disaster.  The  lighthouse  is  as 
firm  as  if  it  were  anchored  upon  a  solid  granite  rock,  in- 
stead of  having  its  roots  thrust  deep  into  treacherous 
shifting  sand,  and  constitutes  an  imperishable  monument 
to  German  engineering  ability  ;  while,  all  things  considered, 
the  cost  was  low,  being  only  £43,400,  or  $217,000,  in  all. 
The  light  is  electric,  the  power  being  supplied  from  a  station 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  143 

on  shore,  and  fed  to  the  lighthouse  through  a  submarine 
cable  ;  the  keepers  are  also  in  submarine  telegraphic  com- 
munication with  the  mainland. 

When  the  United  States  set  out  to  build  a  similar  struc- 
ture in  the  spacious  Delaware  Bay,  they  were  confronted 
with  a  prospect  just  as  forbidding,  and  a  task  in  every  way 
as  difficult,  as  that  offered  in  connection  with  the  Rother- 
sand.  There  is  a  dangerous  shoal  about  twenty  miles  off 
the  land,  where  the  Atlantic  beats  with  furious  rage,  and 
where  vessels  were  apt  to  stick  hard  and  fast.  It  was 
described  as  "  Fourteen  Foot  Bank  "  by  mariners,  from  the 
depth  of  the  water  jQowing  over  the  shoal,  and  this  col- 
loquialism has  provided  the  name  for  the  present  guardian 
light.  The  open  situation  did  not  augur  favourably  for 
the  completion  of  a  lighthouse  at  this  spot,  but  the  American 
engineers  were  resolved  to  make  the  attempt.  Accordingly, 
plans  were  prepared  for  a  construction  upon  the  caisson 
principle,  which  was  the  only  method  promising  success. 

The  preliminary  step  was  the  fabrication  of  a  caisson. 
The  first  part  was  more  like  a  raft  with  sides.  It  was  about 
40  feet  square,  5  feet  thick,  and  with  walls  7  feet  deep. 
It  was  built  of  timber,  the  staves  being  12  inches  square, 
and  upside  down — that  is,  with  the  floor  uppermost — on  a 
building-slip,  as  if  it  were  a  ship,  and  was  launched  into  the 
water  upon  similar  lines.  The  sides  and  top  were  lined, 
so  as  to  secure  water-tightness.  In  the  centre  there  was  a 
circular  space  5  feet  in  diameter  to  form  the  air-shaft. 

As  the  structure  was  built  upside  down,  the  rim  was 
brought  to  the  lowermost  position,  and  this  formed  the 
cutting  edge,  which  was  to  be  sunk  into  the  sand.  On 
this  floating  platform  a  circular  iron  cylinder  was  erected. 
This  tube  was  35  feet  in  diameter,  and  was  built  up  in 
plates,  6  feet  in  width  by  i^  inches  thick.  When  three 
rings  of  iron  were  set  up  the  cylinder  was  18  feet  in  height. 
In  order  to  sink  it  to  a  depth  of  15^  feet  into  the  water  for 
towing  purposes,  it  was  charged  with  a  layer  of  concrete, 
9  inches  in  thickness,  to  serve  as  ballast,  and  in  this  con- 
dition the  caisson  weighed  400  tons. 


14+  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

This  huge  barrel  was  built  at  Lewes,  Delaware,  and  when 
it  was  launched  two  powerful  steam-tugs  set  out  to  drag  it 
to  the  shoal,  twenty  miles  away.  As  the  tide  rises  and  falls 
a  matter  of  6  feet  in  these  waters,  and  the  currents  are  some- 
what wicked,  the  engineers  displayed  no  undue  haste. 
They  waited  for  the  first  favourable  opportunity,  and  seized 
it.  But  it  took  the  two  tugs  some  six  hours  to  reach  the 
site  ;  an  average  speed  of  about  three  and  a  half  miles  per 
hour  cannot  be  construed  into  fast  travelling. 

When  the  mighty  caisson  had  been  warped  and  nudged 
dead  into  position  over  the  desired  spot,  water  was  admitted. 
With  a  gurgling  and  hissing  the  hulk  sank  slowly  into  the 
sea.  At  last  a  slight  jolt,  which  quivered  through  the  mass, 
signified  that  the  structure  was  resting  on  the  bottom.  The 
engineers  gave  a  sigh  of  relief,  but  the  next  instant  changed 
it  to  a  cry  of  dismay.  The  caisson  began  to  heel  over  to 
one  side.  Was  it  going  to  capsize  ?  That  was  the  absorbing 
fear.  It  canted  more  and  more,  until  at  last  it  had  a  list  of 
12  degrees.  It  had  not  sunk  vertically  !  There  was  less 
than  1 6  inches  of  water  between  the  sea-level  and  the  rim 
when  the  caisson  first  jarred  against  the  sand,  and  if  it 
careened  over  too  far  the  water  certainly  would  rush  in, 
roll  the  whole  tub  over,  and  tumble  it  hither  and  thither 
over  the  sea-bed.  The  engineers  watched  that  caisson  as 
closely  as  a  cat  watches  a  mouse-hole.  Presently  it  eased 
up,  and  then,  as  the  tide  rose  some  six  hours  later,  it  began 
to  right  itself.  The  engineers  were  relieved  once  more.  The 
danger  was  over.  But  their  self-satisfaction  was  soon  upset 
as  the  tide  began  to  ebb,  because  again  the  cylinder  gradually 
fell  over  on  its  side.  The  cause  of  this  strange  behaviour 
flashed  upon  them.  The  surface  of  the  sandbank  was  not 
level  !  The  mass  in  sinking  had  touched  bottom  on  the 
highest  point  of  the  shoal,  and  was  trying  to  find  its  own 
level. 

Without  any  further  delay,  the  engineers  decided  upon  an 
ingenious  means  of  correcting  this  erratic  and  dangerous 
action.  The  tugs  were  despatched  hurriedly  to  Lewes  to 
bring  out  cargoes  of  broken  stone,  which  had  been  delivered 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  145 

for  the  preparation  of  the  concrete.  While  the  steameis 
pursued  their  errand,  the  engineers  fashioned  large  pockets 
on  the  elevated  section  of  the  structure,  into  which  the  stone 
upon  its  arrival  was  placed.  Gradually  but  surely  the 
caisson  not  only  was  corrected,  but  the  weighted  end  was 
induced  to  settle  into  the  sand,  until  the  opposite  free  edge 
in  its  turn  was  resting  upon  the  shoal. 

In  this  manner  all  danger  of  further  canting  now  was 
removed.  As  the  rim  had  been  brought  perilously  near  the 
water-level,  and  there  was  a  possibility  of  flooding  from  a 
rough  sea,  the  walls  of  the  caisson  were  extended  vertically 
with  all  haste;  meanwhile  two  additional  rings  of  iron  were 
placed  in  position,  and  the  top  was  brought  about  20  feet 
above  the  water.  While  this  work  was  in  progress  the 
structure  gradually  bit  farther  and  farther  into  the  sand, 
until  at  last  it  secured  a  firm  hold. 

At  the  earliest  possible  moment  the  air-compressors  were 
set  to  work,  and  air  was  driven  into  the  space  between  the 
cutting  edge  and  the  roof,  in  which  the  men  were  to  work. 
This  space  was  40  feet  square  and  7  feet  deep.  The  greater 
pressure  of  the  air  drove  the  water  out  from  this  space, 
and  the  men  were  able  to  enter  through  the  air-lock  and  to 
work  upon  a  dry  surface,  isolated  from  the  surrounding  sea 
by  the  fence  formed  by  the  cutting  edge. 

The  men  toiled  in  eight-hour  shifts  continuously,  re- 
moving the  sand  within  the  space  and  sending  it  upwards 
to  be  discharged  overboard.  As  the  area  was  excavated, 
the  cutting  edge  sank  deeper  and  deeper,  so  that  the 
structure  became  more  and  more  firmly  embedded.  There 
was  apprehension  that  the  obstruction  offered  by  the  caisson 
to  the  movement  of  the  currents  might  set  up  undermining 
around  the  cylinder,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Rothersand  ;  but 
the  engineers  arrested  any  tendency  in  this  direction  by 
dumping  large  pieces  of  stone  overboard  around  the  tub. 
Some  6,000  tons  of  stone  were  used  for  this  purpose,  so  that 
the  caisson  has  an  impregnable  protection. 

As  the  structure  sank  lower  and  lower,  owing  to  the 
excavation,  concrete  was  dumped  around  the  air-tube  above 


146  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

the  floor  of  the  space  in  which  the  men  were  labouring,  while 
successive  rings  of  iron  were  added  to  the  top  of  the  cyHnder. 
The  men  worked  with  great  gusto  in  their  novel  situation, 
and,  the  task  being  prosecuted  uninterruptedly  throughout 
the  day  and  night,  the  cylinder  sank  from  12  to  24  inches 
during  the  twenty-four  hours.  This  labour  was  maintained 
until  the  cutting  edge  of  the  caisson  was  33  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  shoal,  when  the  engineers  called  halt.  They 
considered  that  the  task  had  been  continued  to  a  sufficient 
depth  to  secure  the  requisite  rigidity  for  their  lighthouse. 
The  men  left  the  working  chamber,  which  was  then  tightly 
underrammed  with  sand,  so  as  to  form  a  solid  foundation, 
while  the  air-shaft  was  filled  up  with  rammed  sand  and 
sealed  with  a  thick  plug  of  concrete.  The  wall  of  the  iron 
cylinder  had  been  intermittently  increased  in  height  by  the 
addition  of  successive  rings  of  plates,  until  the  rim  was 
70  feet  above  the  cutting  edge  and  projected  about  30  feet 
above  the  water  at  low-tide.  From  the  bottom  to  a  height 
of  40  feet  it  is  virtually  a  solid  mass  of  concrete,  protected  by 
a  skin  of  iron  i^  inches  thick.  Further  concrete  was  added, 
bringing  the  solid  section  to  within  10  feet  of  the  rim,  so 
that  the  concrete  heart  is  about  53  feet  in  height  and  35  feet 
in  diameter.  It  is  a  solid  circular  rock  sunk  into  the  sand, 
and  as  firm  and  free  from  vibration  as  a  granite  core. 

Upon  this  foundation  a  house  for  the  light-keepers, 
crowned  by  a  tower,  was  erected,  the  focal  plane  being  59  feet 
above  mean  high-water.  It  is  fitted  with  a  light  of  the 
fourth  order,  visible  for  thirteen  miles. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  in  connection  with 
the  Fourteen  Foot  Bank  light  was  its  small  cost,  which  was 
below  the  estimate,  especially  when  it  is  compared  with 
the  German  work.  The  United  States  Government  appro- 
priated a  sum  of  ;£35,ooo,  or  $175,000,  for  the  undertaking, 
but  the  total  expenditure  was  less  than  £25,000,  or  $125,000, 
so  that  a  sum  of  £10,000,  or  $50,000,  was  handed  back  to 
the  Treasury — a  most  unusual  event  in  connection  with 
Government  contracts.  The  lighthouse  was  finished  and 
brought  into  service  in  1886. 


LIGHTHOUSES  BUILT  ON  SAND  147 

The  success  of  this  novel  enterprise  prompted  the  author- 
ities to  essay  a  more  daring  project — the  erection  of  a  light- 
house upon  the  caisson  principle  on  the  Outer  Diamond 
Shoal,  off  Cape  Hatteras,  North  Carolina.  But  the  storms 
encountered  off  this  inhospitable  coast  have  proved  too 
overpowering  for  the  engineer.  Numerous  attempts  have 
been  made,  but  disaster  has  been  their  invariable  fate. 
The  Diamond  Shoal  refuses  to  be  indicated  by  anything 
except  a  lightship. 


CHAPTER  XI 

SOME  LIGHT  PATROLS  OF  THE  FRENCH  COAST 

In  the  matter  of  safeguarding  its  shores  the  French  nation 
has  displayed  considerable  enterprise,  and  its  engineers  have 
added  some  magnificent  contributions  to  this  field  of 
engineering.  The  maintenance  and  welfare  of  these  aids 
to  navigation  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Service  des 
Phares,  which  is  controlled  by  the  Department  of  Bridges 
and  Roads.  The  French  scheme  is  the  disposition  of  the 
lights  along  the  shore  in  such  a  way  that  their  ranges  over- 
lap on  either  side,  so  that,  as  one  passes  along  the  coast, 
before  one  ray  is  dropped  the  next  is  picked  up.  Elec- 
tricity is  employed  extensively  as  the  illuminant,  so  that  the 
lights  are  of  great  power  and  twinkle  like  brilliant  white 
stars  on  a  clear  night. 

While  the  majority  of  these  guides  are  erected  on  the 
mainland,  others  rise  from  islands  lying  off  the  coast, 
which,  by  their  position  in  deep  water,  render  navigation 
hazardous.  The  finest  expressions  of  French  lighthouse 
engineering  are  to  be  found  along  the  rugged  islet-dotted 
coast  of  the  huge  indentation  in  which  lie  the  Channel 
Islands — the  cruel  coast  of  Brittany.  It  was  off  the  western 
extremity  of  Brittany,  which  thrusts  itself  well  out  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  forming  the  point  generally  known  as 
Ushant,  that  the  Drummond  Castle  lost  her  way,  to  pull 
up  v/ith  a  fatal  crash  against  one  of  the  jagged  reefs  stretch- 
ing to  seaward.  While  this  wreck  was  but  one  of  many  in 
these  troubled  waters,  it  sent  a  thrill  round  the  world, 
owing  to  the  terrible  loss  of  life  with  which  it  was  accom- 
panied. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  French  Govern- 
ment has  endeavoured  to  remove  the  evil  notoriety  which 


LIGHT  PATROLS  OF  THE  FRENCH  COAST      149 

this  coast  has  reaped,  and  to  render  it  as  safe  as  the  other 
stretches  lying  to  the  north  and  south.  The  conditions, 
however,  are  against  the  engineer,  as  the  nose  of  the  main- 
land projects  well  into  the  ocean,  and  receives  the  full 
brunt  of  its  attacks  when  gales  rage,  so  that  a  foothold  is 
precarious. 

When  the  question  of  lighting  this  inhospitable  stretch 
of  coast  arose,  the  French  authorities  debated  whether  it 
would  not  be  easier,  cheaper,  and  more  satisfactory,  to  place 
the  lighthouses  on  the  mainland  at  a  sufficient  altitude, 
and  to  fit  them  with  adequately  powerful  lights  to  indicate 
the  outlying  reefs.  The  general  opinion  was  in  favour  of 
such  a  practice.  So  when  Leonce  Reynaud  proposed  to 
mark  the  Heaux  de  Brehat  with  a  magnificent  tower,  there 
was  considerable  opposition.  The  critics  maintained  that 
it  was  a  flagrant  temptation  of  Fate  to  attempt  the  conquest 
of  such  an  evil  wave-swept  rock,  the  head  of  which  was 
barely  visible  above  high-water,  and  was  of  such  small 
dimensions  that  work  would  be  possible  for  only  a  few  hours 
daily  and  then  by  no  more  than  a  mere  handful  of  men. 

The  engineer  was  confident  that  he  could  surmount  all 
difficulties  in  construction,  and  that  he  would  be  able  to 
erect  a  tower  which  would  defy  wind  and  wave,  so  he  gained 
the  day  and  received  the  requisite  sanction  to  proceed  with 
his  undertaking.  He  had  surveyed  the  rock  and  its  sur- 
roundings thoroughly ;  had  discovered  the  velocity  of  the 
currents,  and  their  varying  directions  under  all  conditions 
of  weather.  They  tore  along  at  about  nine  and  a  half  miles 
an  hour,  and  this  speed  was  augmented  considerably  in 
rough  weather.  He  selected  the  site  for  the  lighthouse  about 
nine  miles  from  the  Isle  of  Brehat,  where  landing  would  have 
to  be  made  at  low-water,  owing  to  the  water  rushing  first 
from  the  island  to  the  rock,  and  then  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, according  to  the  movements  of  the  tides. 

The  Isle  of  Brehat  was  made  the  base  for  operations.  It 
is  freely  indented,  and  one  of  the  coves  was  found  to  form 
an  excellent  little  harbour.  A  rough  stone  jetty  was  run 
out  for  a  length  of  170  feet,  and  while  one  fleet  of  boats 


ISO  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

was  retained  to  convey  material  from  the  island  to  the  rock, 
another  was  kept  to  bring  supplies  to  the  island  for  prepara- 
tion, and  the  support  of  the  men,  whose  quarters  were  estab- 
lished at  this  depot.  Sixty  men  were  employed  on  the 
work.  They  dressed  the  granite  stones  and  prepared  the 
woodwork  as  it  arrived  in  the  raw  condition,  ample  work- 
shops being  provided  for  these  purposes. 

The  face  of  the  rock  was  cleaned  off  during  the  brief 
intervals  when  it  was  bared  by  the  sea,  and  rough  stones 
and  masonry  were  laid  in  concrete  and  continued  solidly 
to  a  point  13  feet  above  high-water.  Around  this  confined 
platform  quarters  were  built  for  the  handful  of  men  who 
stayed  on  the  rock  during  the  periods  of  calm  weather,  as 
too  much  time  was  lost  in  travelling  to  and  from  the  island, 
while  there  were  risks  of  landing  being  interrupted  by  the 
swell.  A  temporary  light  Was  also  placed  in  position  while 
constructional  work  was  proceeding,  to  warn  navigation. 
The  facilities  also  included  a  small  forge  for  the  fashioning 
upon  the  spot  of  the  iron  dogs  and  bolts  whereby  the  stones 
were  clamped  together,  and  this  proved  highly  convenient, 
except  for  one  thing  :  when  the  water  was  somewhat  rough 
and  playful,  the  waves,  striking  the  rock,  flew  into  the  air, 
soused  the  forge,  and  extinguished  the  fire. 

The  preparations  of  the  foundations  proved  exceedingly 
tedious.  The  rock  is  a  very  hard  black  porphyry,  but  the 
surface  was  so  scarred  with  fissures  and  deep  cracks  that 
the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  had  to  be  cleaned  off,  so  as  to 
remove  all  rotten  and  splintered  rock  in  order  to  secure  a 
firm,  solid  foundation.  Then  a  circle  38  feet  in  diameter 
was  marked  off,  and  masons  cut  away  all  the  rock  around 
this  line  to  a  depth  of  about  20  inches  and  of  sufficient 
width  to  take  the  stones — a  trench,  as  it  were.  This  work 
had  to  be  executed  during  the  short  period  of  low-water, 
and  a  special  schedule  was  prepared  to  insure  the  men  con- 
centrating the  whole  of  their  energies  upon  the  task  when 
opportunity  offered.  As  the  ebbing  tide  began  to  bare  the 
space,  the  workmen  were  called,  and  they  followed  the 
receding  water,  never  leaving  the  spot  for  meals,  but  toiling 


FJioto  by  fennission  c/the  Li^ht]io 
THE    HEAUX    DE    BREHAT    LIGHT. 


^  LiieratiiJ'e  Mission. 


A  striking  tower  built  by  L6once  Reynaud  off  the  exposed  Brittany  coast.     It  is  159  feet 
high  and  took  six  years  to  complete. 


FITTING  THE    LANTERN    OF    LA  JUMENT   LIGHT. 


LIGHT  PATROLS  OF  THE  FRENCH  COAST      151 

continuously  until  the  returning  tide  drove  them  off.  As  a 
rule  the  men  were  sufficiently  fleet  to  get  clear  untouched,  al- 
though they  delayed  their  retreat  until  the  very  last  moment ; 
but  at  other  times  the  sea  was  a  trifle  quicker,  and  the  men 
received  an  unexpected  douche  from  a  scurrying  wave. 

When  this  trench  had  been  cleared  out  and  the  face 
levelled,  the  outer  ring  of  stones  was  laid  and  secured  firmly 
in  position.  The  inner  space  of  the  rock  was  left  in  its 
roughly  trimmed  condition,  and  was  then  buried  beneath 
cement  and  rock  to  the  level  of  the  outer  ring  of  stones, 
forming  a  platform  ready  to  receive  the  mass  of  the  tower. 
The  outer  ring  was  the  main  consideration,  and  the  work 
had  to  be  finished  in  such  a  manner  that  a  tight  joint  was 
made  with  the  rock,  to  resist  the  penetration  of  the  water. 
When  the  men  were  compelled  to  lay  down  their  tools  for 
the  coming  tide,  they  hastily  applied  a  thick  covering  of 
quick-drying  cement  to  the  work  completed,  thereby  pro- 
tecting it  against  the  disintegrating  and  percolating  action 
of  the  sea. 

Ere  the  work  had  started  thoroughly,  the  engineer  was 
faced  with  a  trouble  which  he  had  not  anticipated.  The 
men  were  left  to  attend  to  their  own  desires  in  the  way  of 
provisions.  This  haphazard  arrangement  had  the  inevitable 
sequel.  Some  of  the  men  were  stricken  down  with  scurvy, 
and  the  disease  promised  to  secure  a  firm  hold,  when  the 
engineer  stepped  in  with  a  firm  hand.  He  established  a 
canteen,  the  contractor  of  which  was  compelled  to  maintain 
a  supply  of  varied  provisions  for  six  months  at  least,  lest 
the  little  colony  should  become  isolated  by  rough  weather. 
A  regular  varied  bill  of  fare  was  imposed  upon  the  work- 
men, who  were  compelled  to  purchase  their  requirements 
from  the  canteen.  By  this  firm  and  timely  action  the 
disease  was  stamped  out.  The  engineer  also  enforced  other 
stringent  regulations  in  the  interests  of  health.  The  men 
were  compelled  to  bathe  once  a  week,  and  had  to  turn  their 
sleeping-blankets  into  the  open  air  every  day  ;  while  the 
quarters  had  to  be  washed  out  and  the  walls  given  a  dress- 
ing of  limewash  at  frequent  intervals. 


152  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

When  the  visitor  approaches  the  tower  for  the  first  time, 
he  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  by  its  unusual  design.  It 
appears  as  if  a  former  tower  of  great  diameter  had  been 
decapitated,  and  another  more  slender  building  placed 
upon  its  butt.  This  is  due  to  the  ingenious  idea  adopted 
by  Reynaud.  The  lower  part  of  the  tower  rises  like  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  from  the  base,  which  is  a  solid  plinth,  to  a 
height  of  39  feet  above  highest  spring-tides.  At  the  top 
this  lower  tower  is  28  feet  in  diameter,  as  compared  with 
38  feet  at  the  base.  Here  the  butt  is  levelled  off,  and  from 
its  surface  rises  the  lighthouse  proper,  in  the  form  of  a 
slightly  tapering  cone,  leaving  a  narrow  gallery  around 
the  superimposed  structure  to  serve  as  a  "  set-off  "  and 
landing  or  entrance  platform. 

In  carrying  out  his  work,  Reynaud  followed  a  principle 
quite  divergent  from  the  prevailing  practice  in  lighthouse 
construction.  He  did  not  attach  every  stone  irremovably 
to  its  neighbours,  but  merely  made  fast  the  masonry  at 
varying  points,  where  the  mass  of  water  might  be  expected 
to  expend  the  greater  part  of  its  violence.  The  method  he 
adopted  is  very  simple .  Keystones  are  introduced  at  selected 
points  in  each  course,  and  these  are  driven  up  and  held  tight 
by  granite  plugs  and  wedges.  The  principle  was  assailed  at 
the  time  as  being  deficient  in  strength,  but  no  apprehensions 
ever  have  arisen  concerning  the  safety  of  the  tower,  so  that 
the  engineer's  daring  ingenuity  has  been  completely  justified. 

Considering  the  isolation  of  the  rock  and  its  wind-swept 
position,  it  was  built  in  a  very  short  time.  The  whole  of 
the  year  1834  was  devoted  to  the  survey  of  the  rock,  close 
observations  of  the  prevailing  meteorological  conditions, 
and  the  preparation  of  the  design.  The  succeeding  year 
was  confined  to  the  establishment  of  the  workmen's  quarters, 
the  cutting  of  the  annular  trench  in  the  rock,  and  the  setting 
of  the  masonry  course.  The  erection  of  the  superstructure 
occupied  nearly  four  years,  the  work  being  completed  and 
the  light  exhibited  in  1859,  according  to  the  inscription. 
The  tower  is  159  feet  in  height,  and  the  light  has  a  range 
of  eighteen  miles. 


LIGHT  PATROLS  OF  THE  FRENCH  COAST      153 

Since  the  Heaux  de  Brehat  was  conquered  so  successfully, 
French  lighthouse  engineering  skill  has  been  manifested 
actively  around  the  ill-famed  Brittany  coast,  which  now  is 
robbed  of  the  greater  part  of  its  dangers.  Reynaud'swork, 
however,  did  not  bring  complete  safety  to  the  waters  from 
which  it  lifts  its  imposing  form.  Four  miles  off  the  self- 
same island  is  the  plateau  of  Horaine.  This  is  a  chain  of 
rocks,  the  greatest  peril  of  which  is  that  at  high-tide  nothing 
whatever  of  them  is  seen,  and  their  existence  is  betrayed 
only  by  the  agitated  and  broken  waves  rushing  over  them 
with  fearful  force.  As  the  tide  falls  the  water  becomes 
more  tormented,  and  is  torn  into  flying  foam,  until, 
when  it  has  almost  ebbed,  these  jagged  fangs  may  be  seen 
projecting  above  the  surf.  Bearing  in  mind  these  terrible 
characteristics,  it  is  not  surprising  that  time  after  time 
vessels  which  had  been  driven  out  of  their  course  by  tem- 
pestuous weather,  or  had  got  lost  in  a  dense  fog,  blundered 
into  this  death-trap  and  were  lost. 

The  French  Government  was  sorely  puzzled  as  to  how  to 
overcome  this  danger.  The  engineers  fought  the  elements 
valiantly  for  forty  years  in  an  effort  to  crown  Horaine 
with  a  beacon,  but  time  after  time  they  were  defeated. 
Landing  on  the  reef  is  highly  dangerous.  The  rocks  are 
surrounded  by  surging,  eddying  currents,  running  at  any- 
thing from  six  miles  upwards  per  hour,  while  the  slightest 
ruffle  of  wind  is  quite  sufficient  to  stir  up  the  water  so  as  to 
fling  it  swirling  over  the  rocks  even  at  lowest  tide.  Once  or 
twice,  when  a  period  of  abnormal  calm  prevailed,  the 
engineers  struggled  on  to  the  rock  and  hurriedly  built  a 
substantial  masonry  beacon,  but  its  life  was  always  brief. 
The  first  two  or  three  gales  which  pounded  and  roared  over 
the  chain  invariably  scattered  the  handiwork  of  man  in  all 
directions. 

Then  another  expedient  was  attempted.  A  party  landed 
upon  the  ridge,  drove  a  hole  into  the  solid  rock,  and  there 
set  a  vertical  iron  girder  4  inches  in  thickness,  trusting 
that  it  would  hold  fast  and  indicate  the  reef  sufficiently 
during  the  day.     But  its  life  was  short.     A  gale  came  along 


154  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

and  snapped  the  post  in  twain,  leaving  a  twisted,  bent 
stump,  some  36  inches  long,  remaining  on  the  rock. 

In  1890  another  bold  effort  to  subjugate  the  ridge  was 
made.  An  hexagonal  structure  was  designed,  and  it  was 
determined  to  plant  this  on  the  rock  by  hook  or  by  crook, 
and  so  firmly  as  to  resist  the  most  powerful  hammerings 
to  which  it  could  be  subjected  by  the  waves.  Six  holes  were 
bored  into  the  rock  surface  to  form  the  corners  of  the 
hexagon.  But  before  commencing  the  work  proper  it  was 
decided  to  insert  an  iron  post,  6^  inches  thick,  into  one  of 
the  holes,  and  to  leave  it  to  see  what  would  happen.  Time 
after  time  it  was  inspected,  and  was  found  to  be  safe  and 
sound.  Two  years  had  slipped  by,  practically,  since  the 
post  was  planted,  and  it  was  still  intact.  The  engineers 
thought  they  had  triumphed,  and  were  preparing  their 
plans,  when  the  news  came  that  a  heavy  storm,  which  had 
swept  the  coast,  had  broken  the  pillar  off  flush  with  the 
rock. 

This  necessitated  another  change  in  the  designs  and  the 
plan  of  campaign.  After  further  discussion  it  was  decided 
to  proceed  right  away  with  a  masonry  tower,  although 
the  engineers  were  prepared  for  a  mighty  tussle.  The 
surveys  showed  that,  as  the  rock  upon  which  the  building 
was  to  be  erected  was  covered  by  10  feet  of  water  during 
the  highest  spring-tides,  work  upon  the  foundations  would 
be  confined  to  the  lowest  neap-tides,  when  about  4  feet  of 
the  rock  were  exposed.  But  the  tide  sinks  to  the  very  low 
level  desired  infrequently — about  four  days  in  every  month. 
Even  then  work  would  be  possible  for  only  about  an  hour 
per  day — four  hours  per  month  !  The  prospect  certainly 
was  far  from  being  attractive,  especially  as  even  to  accom- 
plish this  meed  of  toil  the  calmest  weather  and  smoothest 
sea  were  imperative,  and  it  was  scarcely  to  be  expected 
that  everything  would  be  in  favour  of  the  engineers  at  one 
and  the  same  time.  ^ 

Another  adverse  feature  was  only  too  apparent.  If  un- 
propitious  weather  prevailed  just  after  an  hour  or  two's 
work  had  been  completed,  the  chances  were  a  thousand  to  one 


LIGHT  PATROLS  OF  THE  FRENCH  COAST     155 

that  it  would  be  swept  away.  But  this  was  a  contingency 
which  had  to  be  faced.  The  engineer  could  only  do  the 
utmost  humanly  possible  to  secure  his  work,  and  then 
must  trust  to  luck. 

With  infinite  difficulty  a  small  corps  of  daring  workmen 
and  appliances  of  the  simplest  description,  together  with 
materials,  were  got  out  to  the  rock  upon  the  first  favourable 
day  when  there  was  a  very  low  tide.  An  outer  wall  of 
bricks  was  built  piecemeal,  and  the  space  within  was  filled 
with  concrete.  This  stood,  and  so  the  engineer  secured  a 
level  plinth  upon  which  to  place  his  tower.  He  selected  an 
octagonal  building,  the  angles  of  which  touch  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  20  feet  in  diameter  described  on  the  rock. 
It  was  to  be  50  feet  in  height,  bringing  the  warning  light 
about  40  feet  above  high-water.  The  beacon  was  to  be  a 
concrete  monolithic  structure  at  least  for  the  greater  part 
of  its  height,  as  the  light  was  to  be  of  the  unattended  class. 
Accordingly,  the  mould  was  formed  by  setting  a  cast-iron 
post,  18  inches  in  height,  at  each  corner  of  the  octagon, 
this  support  being  anchored  into  the  solid  rock  beneath. 
These  posts  contained  grooves  to  admit  sliding  wooden 
uprights,  which  were  to  be  firmly  wedged,  these  joists 
being  inclined  to  take  the  angle,  or  batter,  proposed  for  the 
tower.  Heavy  transverse  pieces  of  timber  were  laid  between 
these  posts,  forming  a  capacious  octagonal  box,  into  which 
the  concrete  was  poured.  As  the  filling  process  behind  the 
wooden  wall  advanced,  angle  pieces  of  steel  were  super- 
imposed and  bolted  up. 

The  security  of  the  structure  occupied  the  sole  attention 
of  the  engineer.  When  work  had  to  cease,  and  the  boat  put 
off  with  the  workmen  after  a  spell  of  toil,  the  engineer  would 
watch  the  rising  tide  and  the  waves  sweeping  over  his 
structure,  until  at  last  it  disappeared  from  sight.  As  the 
tide  fell  he  followed  the  receding  waters  just  as  eagerly, 
and  gave  a  sigh  of  relief  when  he  saw  that  the  tower  was 
still  withstanding  the  blind  forces  of  Nature.  In  the  early 
stages  an  effort  to  protect  the  work,  when  the  men  had  to 
retreat  before  the  rising  tide,  was  made  by  covering  it  with 


156  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

a  heavy  piece  of  sailcloth,  lashed  down  and  weighted  in 
position  with  huge  masses  of  pig-iron.  This  served  its 
purpose  for  a  time,  but  finally  the  sea  got  the  upper  hand, 
tore  the  canvas  from  its  lashings,  and  carried  it  away, 
together  with  the  whole  of  its  weights.  Then  a  wooden 
protective  device  was  employed,  and  this  likewise  held  out 
until  a  particularly  unfriendly  September  gale  smashed  it 
to  matchwood,  as  well  as  damaging  the  concrete  slightly 
here  and  there. 

The  men  took  their  tools  and  materials  with  them  on 
every  visit,  and,  as  the  tower  rose,  the  working  spells  between 
the  tides  became  longer  and  longer,  until,  when  a  point  above 
high-water  was  reached,  work  was  continued  throughout  the 
day  whenever  the  rock  was  approachable.  A  small  wooden 
platform  was  erected  on  one  side,  on  which  the  concrete  was 
mixed,  while  on  the  other  there  was  a  little  shelf  with  a  small 
cistern,  which  was  filled  with  water  from  the  boats  below, 
through  the  agency  of  a  pump.  A  jury  derrick  was  rigged 
up  to  lift  the  material  and  men  to  the  working  level.  As 
the  tower  rose  in  height,  the  wooden  mould  had  to  be  dis- 
membered and  re-erected  upon  the  new  level,  this  operation 
being  repeated  no  less  than  forty  times  until  the  desired 
height  was  gained.  Work  was  exasperatingly  slow  and 
intermittent,  while  it  had  to  be  suspended  entirely  for  about 
six  or  seven  months,  as  no  one  dared  to  venture  near  the 
rock  in  winter.  Taken  on  the  whole,  it  was  one  of  the  most 
anxious  and  difficult  pieces  of  the  work  of  this  character 
which  the  French  Government  has  ever  undertaken,  while 
the  working  area  was  so  confined  that  less  than  a  dozen  men 
could  toil  simultaneously  without  getting  in  one  another's 
way. 

Recently  the  Brittany  coast  has  been  further  protected 
by  another  magnificent  beacon,  the  Jument  lighthouse,  off 
Ushant.  This  awful  spot  has  long  been  marked  by  a  very 
powerful  electric  light  at  Creach,  which  may  be  seen  over 
twenty  miles  away,  and,  together  with  its  fellow  on  the 
opposite  end  of  the  island,  may  be  said  to  guide  the  crowded 
shipping   around  this   promontory   very  effectively.     But 


LIGHT   PATROLS  OF  THE  FRENCH  COAST     157 

foggy  weather  reduces  the  mariner  to  helplessness,  as  the 
sea  for  two  miles  round  the  island  is  studded  with  reefs, 
ridges  and  rocky  humps  of  a  very  formidable  character,  so 
that  vessels  have  to  keep  well  beyond  this  zone.  When  the 
light  is  obscured,  safe  travelling  is  possible  only  by  going  very 
slowly  and  making  liberal  use  of  the  lead,  while  the  captain 
must  keep  a  sharp  eye  upon  the  rapid  currents  which  set 
inshore  if  he  would  not  be  thrown  upon  the  rocks  he  is  seeking 
sedulously  to  avoid. 

The  French  Government,  with  its  characteristic  thorough- 
ness, determined  to  secure  the  complete  indication  of  the 
Ushant  and  all  its  dangers  by  a  carefully-conceived  and 
comprehensive  chain  of  lights  distributed  over  the  dangerous 
area.  The  urgency  of  such  a  scheme  is  obvious  when  it  is 
remembered  that  it  is  computed  that  24,000  vessels  of  all 
classes  pass  Ushant  in  the  course  of  the  year.  At  the  same 
time  the  sea's  harvest  of  vessels  and  lives  off  this  rocky 
shore  every  year  is  appallingly  heavy.  The  only  handicap 
to  the  immediate  completion  of  the  Government's  humane 
project  is  the  extreme  difficulty  of  the  work  and  its  pro- 
digious cost. 

Fortunately,  through  the  extreme  generosity  of  a  French 
traveller — M.  Potron — it  was  rendered  possible  to  commence 
the  scheme.  Upon  his  death,  and  according  to  the  terms  of 
his  will,  dated  January  9,  1904,  this  gentleman  left  400,000 
francs — £16,000,  or  $80,000 — for  the  erection  of  a  lighthouse 
of  the  latest  type  and  with  the  most  powerful  lighting 
apparatus  off  the  coast  washed  by  the  open  Atlantic,  and 
even  suggested  that  a  site  off  Ushant  would  be  found  the 
most  beneficial  to  humanity.  After  consultation  between 
his  executor,  residuary  legatee,  and  the  Government,  a  rock 
known  as  La  Jument,  off  the  south  of  the  He  d'Ouessant 
(Ushant)  was  selected  for  the  site  of  his  monument.  The 
lighthouse  engineers  advocated  a  tower  118  feet  in  height, 
with  a  light  of  the  latest  type  and  a  modern  fog-signalling 
apparatus.  This  proposal  was  accepted,  and  was  sanctioned 
on  November  18,  1904,  by  the  parties  concerned. 

Headquarters  were  established  in  the  Bay  of  Lampaul,  on 


158  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

Ushant  Island,  which  immediately  faces  the  site,  and  by 
the  end  of  1904  the  preparations  were  well  advanced.  A 
steamboat,  a  launch  and  a  lifeboat  were  secured,  the  first- 
named  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  communication  with 
the  mainland  and  to  bring  in  supplies,  together  with  suitable 
craft  for  transporting  material  and  provisions  to  the  rock. 
The  situation  of  the  ledge  and  its  exposure  to  the  worst 
weather  rendered  approach  very  difficult.  The  danger  spot 
itself  is  completely  covered  at  high-tide,  and  only  projects 
4  feet  at  low-water.  So  far  as  the  foundations  were  con- 
cerned, work  was  only  possible  for  a  few  hours  at  a  time. 
During  the  closing  months  of  1904  seventeen  landings  were 
made  and  fifty-two  hours  in  all  spent  upon  the  rock,  while 
in  the  succeeding  year  the  men  landed  fifty-nine  times,  to 
put  in  an  aggregate  of  2o6|-  hours. 

The  current  rushes  round  the  reef  with  a  velocity  of  some 
ten  miles  per  hour,  varying  its  direction  according  to  the 
movements  of  the  tides.  Investigation  proved  the  existence 
of  a  small  space  of  water  on  one  side  where  the  boats  could 
approach  and  moor  safely  in  an  eddy.  The  men  were  brought 
out  in  the  steamer,  which  also  towed  the  launch  and  the  life- 
boat. The  latter  was  kept  in  readiness  alongside  the  rock 
while  the  men  were  at  work,  in  case  of  emergency.  A  sharp 
eye  had  to  be  kept  upon  the  weather  while  the  handful  of 
men  laboured  hastily  preparing  the  face  of  the  rock,  and  at 
the  first  signs  of  a  threatening  sky  or  increased  movement  in 
the  swell  the  steamer  blew  its  siren,  the  men  scrambled 
aboard,  and  were  hurried  back  to  the  island. 

The  year  1906  was  one  of  bad  weather,  rendering  frequent 
approach  impossible.  During  this  season  the  men  landed 
only  thirty-nine  times  and  toiled  for  152  hours,  while  the  sum 
of  their  achievement  was  the  least  throughout  the  whole 
seven  years  which  the  tower  occupied  in  its  erection.  The 
building  is  solid  for  about  30  feet  above  the  rock,  and  in  1908 
the  construction  of  the  tower  proper  was  commenced.  The 
base  is  circular,  with  a  diameter  of  33I  feet ;  but  the  tower 
itself  is  of  octagonal  form,  with  a  diameter  at  the  base  of 
28  feet,  tapering  slightly  to  the  top. 


LIGHT  PATROLS  OF  THE  FRENCH  COAST     159 

One  notable  feature  in  connection  with  the  work  was  the 
utiHzation  of  electricity  for  the  operation  of  the  derrick, 
which  was  driven  by  a  petrol  motor  coupled  thereto.  This 
was  supplemented  in  times  of  pressure  with  another  derrick, 
driven  by  current  generated  on  the  steamer,  from  which  a 
cable  trailed  to  the  rock.  Altogether  4,180  tons  of  masonry 
were  transported  to  the  rock  and  set  in  position.  During 
the  seven  years  the  work  was  in  progress,  from  the  first 
landing  to  the  final  withdrawal  of  the  workmen,  449  landings 
were  made  and  2,937  hours  of  work  put  in.  The  largest 
annual  aggregate  of  labour  was  in  191 1,  when  70  landings 
were  made  and  400  hours  turned  to  useful  purpose.  The 
tower,  which  is  of  imposing  appearance,  has  six  floors  for  the 
convenience  of  the  keeper,  stores,  etc.  The  apartment  im- 
mediately beneath  the  lantern  contains  the  fog-signalling 
apparatus,  which  comprises  a  siren  driven  by  air  which  is 
compressed  for  the  purpose  by  means  of  a  fourteen  horse- 
power petrol  motor.  The  signal  is  as  follows  :  Three  blasts  of 
one  and  a  half  seconds'  duration  with  intervening  intervals 
of  one  and  a  half  seconds,  followed  by  a  silent  period  of  fifty- 
two  and  a  half  seconds,  one  cycle  thus  being  emitted  every 
minute.  The  light,  which  is  thrown  from  an  elevation  of 
iio|^  feet  above  high -water,  throws  groups  of  three  red 
flashes  at  intervals  of  fifteen  seconds,  and  has  a  maximum 
range  of  twenty  miles  in  very  clear  weather. 

In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  donor's  will,  the  light 
is  named  after  the  rock  upon  which  it  stands,  and  therefore 
is  known  as  the  Jument  of  Ushant  lighthouse.  The  bene- 
factor's second  wish  is  also  respected  in  the  inscription 
wrought  in  the  solid  granite,  which  translated  runs  : 
"  This  lighthouse  was  built  with  the  legacy  of  Charles  Eugene 
Potron,  traveller,  and  member  of  the  Geographical  Society 
of  Paris . ' '  The  sum  set  aside  by  this  benefactor  of  humanity, 
however,  did  not  defray  the  entire  cost  of  the  lighthouse.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  total  outlay  on  the  undertaking  was  more 
than  twice  the  sum  left  for  the  purpose,  totalling  850,000 
francs — £34,000,  or  $170,000.  The  Government  decided  that 
the  munificence  of  its  citizen  offered  the  opportunity  to 


i6o  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

carry  out  the  first  instalment  of  the  scheme  it  had  in  view 
upon  the  most  complete  lines — hence  the  heavy  disburse- 
ment. Nevertheless  the  origin  of  the  Jument  lighthouse  is 
almost  unprecedented  in  the  annals  of  lighthouse  engineer- 
ing, and  it  probably  ranks  as  the  first  important  light  which 
has  been  built  in  accordance  with  the  terms,  and  with 
funds,  left  by  a  will. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST 

The  phenomenal  commercial  expansion  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  which  has  brought  about  an  amazing  development 
in  the  maritime  traffic  with  that  country  on  both  its  sea- 
boards, naturally  has  been  responsible  for  the  display  of 
striking  activity  in  the  provision  of  aids  to  navigation.  Both 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coastlines  bristle  with  dangers  of 
a  most  terrible  nature  ;  the  innumerable  islands  and  pre- 
cipitous flanks  of  rock  recall  the  wild  ruggedness  of  the 
western  coast  of  Scotland  or  the  forbidding  Atlantic  shore- 
line of  France  and  Spain. 

When  the  ships  of  Britain  first  traded  with  Canadian 
shores,  shipwrecks  and  ocean  tragedies  were  numerous  ; 
there  is  no  escape  for  a  ship  which  is  caught  on  those  pitiless 
coasts.  The  early  settlers,  therefore,  did  not  hesitate  to 
provide  ways  and  means  of  guiding  navigators  to  safety. 
Their  first  lights  were  primitive,  comprising  bonfires  fed  with 
wood,  of  which  ample  supplies  abounded,  pitched  on  promi- 
nent headlands  ;  and  these  flickering  rays,  when  not  obscured 
by  smoke  and  fog,  served  to  speed  the  ship  safely  on  her  way. 

The  British  pioneers,  naturally,  did  not  hesitate  to  improve 
upon  these  uncertain  crude  methods  of  warning,  in  course  of 
time,  by  the  erection  of  more  substantial  lights.  These  for 
the  most  part  comprised  timber-frame  dwellings,  used  by  the 
family  entrusted  with  the  maintenance  of  the  light,  from  the 
roof  of  which  a  wooden  tower  extended,  similar  in  design 
to  the  buildings  favoured  for  a  similar  purpose  in  the  United 
States.  Many  lights  of  this  class  are  still  doing  faithful 
service  to-day,  and  although  one  might  anticipate  the  de- 
struction of  such  a  beacon  from  fire,  yet,  owing  to  the  un- 
remitting care  displayed  by  the  families  associated  with  the 

i6l  11 


i62  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

upkeep  thereof,  this  awful  fiend  has  not  been  responsible  for 
the  temporary  extinction  of  many  lights  in  the  country's 
history. 

One  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the  first  light  to  be  established, 
was  that  on  Sambro  Island,  to  indicate  the  entrance  into 
Halifax  Harbour,  Nova  Scotia.  This  signpost  of  the  sea 
was  set  up  in  1758,  and  fulfilled  its  purpose  for  148  years, 
when  it  was  reconstructed  and  fitted  with  the  most  up-to- 
date  appliances.  The  white  flash  now  bursts  forth,  at  an 
elevation  of  140  feet  above  mean  high-water,  from  the  top 
of  a  white  octagonal  stone  and  concrete  tower,  and  is  visible 
from  a  distance  of  seventeen  miles.  When  it  is  blotted  out 
by  fog,  a  powerful  signal  is  given  once  every  ten  minutes  by 
a  cotton-powder  charge.  Mariners,  however,  are  cautioned 
against  attempting  to  make  Sambro  in  fog,  as  the  shore 
is  wild  and  cruel.  This  explosive  signal  is  emitted  rather 
to  communicate  a  timely  warning  to  vessels  which  have  lost 
their  way. 

The  two  most  dangerous  spots  in  the  approach  to  Canada, 
however,  lie  off  the  mainland.  One  is  the  irregular  triangular 
island  of  Newfoundland ;  the  other  is  a  low-lying  stretch  of 
sand  known  as  Sable  Island.  Both  are  amongst  the  most 
ill-famed  graveyards  in  the  North  Atlantic,  where  hundreds 
of  ships  have  gone  to  their  doom.  Even  to-day,  although 
both  are  well  protected  by  lights,  wrecks  are  by  no  means 
uncommon.  Sable  Island  is  stalked  by  the  ghosts  of  scores 
of  seafarers  who  have  been  the  victims  of  some  ghastly 
ocean  tragedy  upon  its  banks. 

The  island  of  Newfoundland  lies  in  the  jaw  of  the  River 
St.  Lawrence,  with  two  narrow  passages  leading  between 
the  Gulf  behind  and  the  broad  Atlantic.  Both  straits  offer 
dangers  to  navigation,  although  in  this  respect  that  of 
Belle  He,  whereby  the  northern  corner  of  the  island  is 
rounded,  is  the  worse  offender.  Yet  the  most  dangerous 
corner  of  the  island  is,  not  where  the  waterways  are  hemmed 
in,  but  that  tongue  which  thrusts  itself  far  out  to  sea,  to 
terminate  in  the  bluff  headland  of  Cape  Race.  This  shore- 
line is  as  serrated  as  a  fine  saw,  being  a  succession  of  indenta- 


THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST     163 

tions  and  steep  promontories,  with  submerged  reefs  running 
far  out  to  sea.  To  the  south  Ues  that  great  submerged 
tableland,  invariably  curtained  in  fog,  where  mighty  icebergs 
that  have  come  down  from  the  north  pound  and  grate 
themselves  to  pieces,  which  throughout  the  shipping  world 
is  regarded  with  dread — the  Grand  Banks.  This  south- 
eastward corner  of  the  island,  by  being  thrust  so  far  out- 
wards, brings  the  rocky  headlands  into  the  path  of  the  vessels 
plying  between  Europe,  Canada,  and  New  York. 

The  shortest  route  between  the  Old  and  New  World 
extends  across  the  northern  half  of  the  Banks,  with  a  slight 
swing  southwards  to  avoid  Cape  Race.  So  far  as  the  great 
liners  are  concerned,  they  are  spared  this  peril,  inasmuch 
as  their  prescribed  lanes  give  the  cruel  coast  a  wide  berth ; 
but  all  other  shipping  has  either  to  swing  round  the  headland 
to  enter  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  or  strike  farther  north  and 
pass  through  the  Strait  of  Belle  lie.  The  latter  route,  how- 
ever, is  available  for  only  five  months  in  the  year  ;  the  greater 
volume  of  the  traffic  skirts  the  southern  shores  of  the  island. 

Under  these  circumstances  Cape  Race  is  to  the  western 
side  of  the  Atlantic  what  the  Fastnet  and  Bishop  Rocks  are 
to  the  eastern  boundaries  of  this  ocean.  Even  if  the  wild 
character  of  the  coast  were  not  sufficient  justification  for 
a  light,  the  currents  experienced  off  these  shores,  which  are 
of  high  velocity  and  violently  broken  up  by  the  indentations 
and  protuberances,  would  demand  the  provision  of  a  beacon. 
Over  one  hundred  vessels  of  all  descriptions  have  been 
smashed  to  pieces  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Race  alone.  The 
Allan  liner  Anglo-Saxon  crashed  into  the  cliffs  and  went 
down  in  1864  with  290  souls.  In  this  instance  the  death- 
roll  would  have  been  far  heavier  had  it  not  been  for  the 
pluck  and  grit  of  the  lighthouse-keepers,  who,  observing  the 
wreck,  hurried  to  the  water's  edge,  lowered  themselves  with 
ropes  from  the  heights  above,  and,  stumbling,  groping,  and 
feeling  their  way  through  the  darkness,  at  imminent  risk 
to  their  own  limbs  and  lives,  rescued  130  of  the  luckless 
passengers  and  crew  from  the  wreck,  who  were  huddled  on  a 
ledge  under  the  cliffs,  hungry,  shivering  with  cold,  and  too 


i64  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

exhausted  to  assist  themselves.  The  light-keepers  and  men 
from  the  telegraph-station  had  to  lift  these  helpless  sur- 
vivors one  by  one  to  the  top  of  the  precipice,  a  task  demand- 
ing herculean  effort,  patience,  and  intrepidity,  and  to  lead 
and  help  them  to  the  lighthouse,  where  they  were  tended 
until  a  steamer,  answering  the  telegraphic  call  for  help,  came 
round  from  St.  John's  and  took  the  hapless  people  off. 

In  1 90 1  the  Assyrian  ran  ashore  in  calm  weather,  and  was 
too  firmly  jammed  on  a  reef  to  extricate  herself.  A  week 
later  another  fine  vessel  and  cargo  worth  ;^8o,ooo,  or  $400,000, 
was  battered  to  pulp  by  the  waves,  the  lighthouse-keepers 
once  more,  at  great  risk  to  themselves,  putting  out  and 
rescuing  those  on  board  in  the  nick  of  time.  Ere  the  excite- 
ment of  this  wreck  had  died  down,  a  French  emigrant  steamer, 
the  Lusitania,  ran  full-tilt  on  to  a  reef,  and  but  for  the 
timely  aid  rendered  by  the  lighthouse-keepers  and  the 
fisherfolk  550  people  would  have  been  drowned.  More 
fearful  catastrophes  have  been  enacted  within  hail  of  the 
lights  at  Cape  Race  and  Cape  Ray,  hard  by  to  the  west,  and 
more  millions  sterling  of  cargo  and  ship  have  been  shat- 
tered and  lost  here  than  upon  any  other  corresponding 
stretch  of  coast  in  the  world.  The  most  noticeable  point  in 
connection  with  these  disasters  is  the  large  number  of  big 
boats  which  have  ended  their  careers  abruptly  off  this  spot, 
although  the  rocks  have  claimed  a  big  share  of  small  fry 
as  well. 

The  first  beacon  was  placed  on  the  headland  in  1856.  It 
was  a  cylindrical  tower,  built  up  of  cast-iron  plates,  erected 
near  the  edge  of  the  cliff,  which  is  87  feet  high.  The  tower 
itself  being  38  feet  in  height,  the  focal  plane  of  the  beam 
was  at  an  elevation  of  125  feet  above  the  sea.  It  was 
erected  jointly  by  the  British  and  Newfoundland  Govern- 
ment authorities,  although  the  maintenance  thereof  was 
entrusted  to  Great  Britain.  In  return  for  the  provision  of 
this  warning,  a  tax  of  one-sixteenth  of  a  penny,  or  an  eighth 
of  a  cent,  per  ton,  was  collected  in  England  from  vessels 
passing  the  light.  The  beacon  was  not  particularly  power- 
ful, the  ray  being  only  of  some  6,000  candle-power. 


THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST    165 

Some  years  ago  the  lighthouse  was  handed  over  to  the 
Canadian  Government  to  be  included  in  its  service,  together 
with  the  balance  of  the  fund  which  had  accrued  from  the 
levy  of  the  special  tax.  This  sum  represented  ;£20,579,  or 
1102,895.  The  Canadian  Government  abolished  the  light- 
due,  and  the  surplus  funds  were  absorbed  into  the  general 
revenue  of  the  country. 

The  new  owners,  realizing  the  importance  of  the  light, 
subsequently  decided  to  provide  a  new  beacon  of  greater 
power  to  meet  the  demands  of  shipping,  which  had  increased 
amazingly.  In  1907  this  structure  was  completed.  It  is 
a  cylindrical  tower,  carried  out  in  reinforced  concrete, 
100  feet  in  height,  surmounted  by  a  lantern  of  the  first  order 
with  hyperradial  apparatus.  This  is  the  largest  type  of 
optical  apparatus  in  use  at  the  present  time,  and  the  ray  of 
light  produced  by  an  incandescent  oil-burner  and  mantle 
is  of  1,100,000  candle-power,  shed  from  an  elevation  of 
195  feet  above  the  water.  The  warning  flash  of  a  quarter 
of  a  second  every  seven  and  a  half  seconds  is  visible  from  a 
distance  of  nineteen  miles.  In  addition,  the  fog-signalling 
apparatus  was  brought  up  to  date.  The  steam- whistle, 
which  had  sufficed  up  to  the  date  of  reconstruction,  was 
replaced  by  a  diaphone  of  the  greatest  power  installed  up 
to  that  time.  This  is  set  up  about  250  feet  south  of  the 
lighthouse,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  covered  passage. 
The  air  required  to  emit  the  warning  blast,  lasting  three  and 
a  half  seconds  once  in  every  half-minute,  is  compressed  by 
the  aid  of  steam.  By  day  the  lighthouse  is  readily  dis- 
tinguishable from  its  red  and  white  vertical  stripes,  red 
lantern,  and  white  dwelling  with  red  roof,  in  which  the 
keepers  have  their  quarters.  To-day  the  station  ranks  as 
one  of  the  iinest  in  the  world,  complying  in  every  respect 
with  the  requisitions  for  one  of  a  first-class  character. 

Sable  Island  is  perhaps  an  even  more  evil  spot  in  the 
North  Atlantic  than  the  ill-famed  Newfoundland  coast. 
It  is  a  bleak,  inhospitable,  crescent-shaped  collection  of 
sand-dunes,  eighty-five  miles  due  east  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
lying  right  in  the  steamship  tracks.     A  more  uninviting 


i66  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

stretch  of  dry  land  could  not  be  conceived.  Little  grows 
here  beyond  a  special  kind  of  brush,  which  appears  to 
flourish  in  sea-swept  billows  of  sand.  But  the  obstacle  is 
formidable,  being  twenty-two  miles  in  length  by  a  mile  in 
width  at  its  broadest  part.  This  does  not  constitute  the 
extent  of  its  dangers — far  from  it.  The  island  is  slowly  but 
surely  being  swallowed  up  by  the  restless,  hissing  sea,  with 
the  result  that,  when  one  stands  on  the  almost  indistinguish- 
able line  where  sea  meets  land,  an  aspect  of  white  ruffs  of 
foam  curl  in  all  directions  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see,  where  the 
surf  is  thundering  over  the  shoals.  I  have  related  the  toll 
that  this  island  of  the  dead  has  exacted  from  shipping,*  and 
now  confine  myself  to  describing  the  means  that  have  been 
provided  to  warn  the  mariner  off  its  bars.  The  Canadian 
Government  maintains  two  lighthouses,  at  the  western  and 
eastern  extremities  respectively,  and  those  entrusted  with 
their  safe-keeping  have  as  lonely  an  existence  as  may  be 
conceived.  The  welcome  face  of  a  stranger  never  brightens 
their  lives,  except  when  the  relief-boat  draws  in  as  far  as  it 
dares  in  the  calmest  weather,  or  when  some  luckless  wretches 
are  snatched  from  a  vessel  which  has  fallen  into  the  toils  of 
the  sand  and  is  doomed.  The  sea-birds  and  seals  are  their 
sole  companions  on  this  lonely  outpost. 

The  necessity  of  indicating  this  death-trap  to  the  mariner 
was  realized  at  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  but  it 
was  not  until  1802  that  a  forward  step  was  taken  to  ease  the 
plight  of  those  who  were  thrown  upon  its  shores.  Then  the 
province  of  Nova  Scotia  voted  a  sum  of  £400  or  $2,000,  per 
annum,  for  the  maintenance  of  a  fully-equipped  life-saving 
station.  This  sum  was  too  slender  to  fulfil  the  purposes 
conceived,  but  in  1827  the  Imperial  Government,  recog- 
nizing the  humane  character  of  the  enterprise,  voted  a  simi- 
lar appropriation,  which  is  paid  regularly,  or  was  up  to  a 
few  years  ago,  towards  its  support.  When  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  became  an  accomplished  fact  in  1867,  by  the  con- 
federation of  the  provinces,  the  matter  was  taken  up  whole- 
heartedly, and  since  that  date  enormous  sums  have  been 

*  "  The  Steamship  Conquest  of  the  World,"  chapter  xxi.,  p.  299. 


H      ^ 


THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST    167 

expended  upon  the  island  for  the  protection  of  shipping  and 
the  mitigation  of  the  sufferings  of  those  cast  upon  its  in- 
hospitable shores.  At  the  present  time  three  life-saving 
stations  and  six  relief  stations,  equipped  with  the  best 
modern  apparatuses,  are  maintained,  connected  by  telephone 
and  equipped  with  a  staff  of  about  twenty  men.  When  the 
gales  are  raging  and  the  island  is  encircled  in  a  broad  band 
of  maddened  spray  stretching  to  the  horizon,  these  men  are 
out  patrolling  the  shore,  ready  to  man  the  lifeboat  upon  the 
first  signals  of  distress.  The  life  of  these  lonely  workers  now 
is  lightened  very  appreciably,  as  the  island  is  fitted  with  a 
wireless  station,  wherewith  the  men  are  able  to  talk  through 
space  with  the  mainland  and  with  passing  vessels. 

The  west  end  light  has  passed  through  many  vicissitudes, 
and  the  keepers  have  experienced  innumerable  thrills.  At 
this  point  the  ocean  is  devouring  the  island  rapidly.  In 
1873  the  tower  was  raised  in  what  was  considered  a  safe 
position.  It  was  placed  some  distance  from  the  water's 
edge  on  a  favourable  knoll,  and  thought  to  be  immune  from 
the  gnawing  of  the  sea  for  many  years  to  come.  But  Nature 
disposed  otherwise.  The  awful  winter  of  188 1  played  havoc 
with  the  island.  One  mighty  gale  carried  away  a  solid 
chunk  70  feet  wide  by  nearly  1,400  feet  long.  When  the 
summer  came,  and  an  inspection  was  made,  fears  were  enter- 
tained concerning  the  safety  of  the  lighthouse.  The  keepers 
had  observed  violent  tremblings,  for  the  tower  vibrated 
considerably  under  the  smashing  blows  of  the  waves. 
Nothing  could  be  done  that  summer,  and  it  was  hoped  that 
the  succeeding  winter  would  be  milder,  to  enable  plans  to  be 
prepared  for  the  construction  of  a  new  tower  in  a  safer 
position.  The  keepers,  however,  were  urged  to  keep  a  sharp 
eye  on  developments,  and  to  be  prepared  for  any  emergency. 
The  winter  of  1882  proved  to  be  worse  than  that  of  the 
previous  year,  and  the  island  suffered  more  than  ever.  The 
keepers  and  their  isolated  comrades  viewed  the  advance 
of  the  waves  with  ill-disguised  alarm.  Would  the  island 
around  the  light  hold  out  until  the  spring  ?  That  was  the 
uppermost  thought.     Every  gale  brought  the  waves  nearer, 


i68  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

and  at  last  it  was  recognized  that  one  good  gale  would  finish 
matters.  So  the  men  prepared  for  the  emergency.  The 
demolition  of  the  tower  commenced,  a  race  between  the 
waters  and  human  labour.  The  men  worked  well  and  had 
just  got  the  superstructure  away,  when  there  was  a  creak,  a 
groan,  and  a  crash  !  The  foundations,  which  had  been  under- 
mined, disappeared  into  the  Atlantic.  In  less  than  ten  years 
the  hungry  ocean  had  carried  a  mile  of  Sable  Island  away. 

In  1888  the  present  magnificent  lighthouse  was  brought 
into  service.  It  is  a  ferro-concrete  tower  of  octagonal  shape 
rising  from  a  massive  plinth  of  the  same  form,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  four  equidistantly-spaced  wing  buttresses  to  hold 
the  structure  more  rigid  in  rough  weather.  The  building  is 
set  on  a  knoll  rising  20  feet  above  the  water,  and  about  2,100 
yards  east  of  the  extremity  of  the  western  dry  spit  of  land, 
so  that  the  Atlantic  will  have  to  gnaw  a  considerable  distance 
before  it  will  render  the  position  of  this  light  untenable. 
The  tower  is  97  feet  in  height,  bringing  the  white  ray  118  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  light  is  of  the  group  revol- 
ving type,  thrown  once  every  three  minutes.  The  warning 
is  made  up  of  three  flashes,  with  an  eclipse  of  thirty  seconds 
between  each  flash,  followed  by  darkness  for  ninety  seconds, 
and  may  be  seen  sixteen  miles  away.  While  the  beacon 
mounts  guard  over  the  main  end  of  the  island  on  one  side, 
there  is  a  dangerous  submerged  bar  which  runs  north-west- 
wards and  westwards  for  seventeen  miles.  The  light  at  the 
east  end,  which  was  erected  in  1873,  is  likewise  carried  on  an 
octagonal  tower  81  feet  high,  but,  being  set  upon  a  more 
commanding  position,  the  beam  is  elevated  to  123  feet.  It 
is  erected  five  miles  south-westwards  of  the  extreme  tip  of  the 
island,  and  gives  a  white  flash  at  intervals  of  three  seconds, 
followed  by  an  eclipse  of  fifteen  seconds  ;  it  may  be  picked 
up  seventeen  miles  away.  Similarly,  this  light  mounts  guard 
over  a  submerged  sand-bar,  which  extends  eastwards  for 
at  least  fourteen  miles. 

During  the  late  summer  and  autumn  the  majority  of  the 
vessels  plying  between  ports  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Europe 
take  the  shorter  route  round  the  northern  corner  of  New- 


M     r'       ?^ 


THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST    169 

foundland  through  the  Straits  of  Belle  He.  This  is  a  highly 
dangerous  passage,  inasmuch  as  the  narrow  streak  of  water, 
seventy  miles  in  length,  with  a  maximum  width  of  eleven 
miles,  separating  the  frowning  coasts  of  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador,  is  strewn  with  menaces,  the  most  formidable  of 
which  is  Belle  He,  which  lies  right  in  the  centre  of  the  en- 
trance from  the  ocean.  The  island  is  really  a  lofty  hump  of 
rock,  twenty-one  miles  in  circumference,  with  the  shores  for 
the  most  part  dropping  precipitously  into  the  water.  It  is 
an  extremely  lonely  spot,  and,  naturally,  is  feared  by  the 
mariner.  His  apprehensions,  however,  have  been  consider- 
ably relieved,  because  the  channel  is  brilliantly  lighted  by 
several  powerful  lights  visible  from  twelve  to  twenty-eight 
miles,  while  another  is  being  established. 

The  beacons  are  distributed  along  the  shores  of  New- 
foundland, Belle  He,  and  Labrador,  one  powerful  light  being 
placed  on  Cape  Bauld,  the  northernmost  point  of  Newfound- 
land, and  another  on  Cape  Norman,  another  promontory  to 
the  west.  These  two  lights  are  visible  from  twenty  and 
sixteen  miles  respectively,  while  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
strait  is  Amour  Point  light,  guarding  the  south-east  side  of 
Forteau  Bay  on  the  Labrador  shore,  which  has  a  range  of 
eighteen  miles.  Cape  Bauld  is  the  most  important  mainland 
beacon,  inasmuch  as  it  indicates  the  entrance  to  the 
Belle  He  Straits.  Belle  He  is  well  protected  at  its  two 
extreme  tips,  the  principal  light  being  at  the  southern  end. 
The  necessity  of  guiding  ships  between  the  island  and  New- 
foundland was  recognized  half  a  century  ago,  for  this  light 
was  erected  in  1858.  It  is  perched  on  the  summit  of  the 
cliff,  400  feet  above  the  sea,  the  occulting  light  of  ten  seconds' 
duration  and  five  seconds'  eclipse  being  thrown  from  an 
altitude  of  470  feet,  rendering  it  distinguishable  twenty- 
eight  miles  away.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  extreme 
elevation  of  the  light  often  causes  it  to  be  enshrouded  in 
impenetrable  banks  of  clouds,  which  drape  the  headland  ;  so 
in  1880  an  auxiliary  light  was  established,  346  feet  below  the 
upper  light.  This  beam  is  similar  in  character  to  the  one 
above,  and,  from  its  elevation  of  124  feet  above  the  water,  it 


I/O  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

may  be  picked  up  from  seventeen  miles  out.  Consequently, 
in  foggy  weather  the  lower  light  may  be  seen  when  the  upper 
beacon  is  obscured.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  points 
on  the  coast,  being  a  marine  telegraph,  signal,  and  ice-report 
station,  while  it  is  also  fitted  with  wireless  telegraphy.  An 
interesting  feature  in  connection  with  this  light  is  that  it  was 
kept  going  for  three  generations  by  one  family,  the  Coltons, 
whose  name  is  legendary  in  Quebec,  and  some  of  whom 
were  born  and  died  on  Belle  He. 

The  second  light,  on  the  northern  extremity  of  the  island, 
to  indicate  the  northern  entrance  into  the  straits,  is  of 
recent  date,  having  been  brought  into  operation  in  1905. 
It  is  a  tower  of  iron,  encased  in  a  white  octagonal  reinforced 
concrete  covering  capped  with  a  red  polygonal  -  shaped 
lantern  throwing  a  flash  of  half  a  second  once  every  eleven 
seconds  from  a  height  of  137  feet,  visible  from  a  distance  of 
seventeen  miles. 

Fogs  and  mists  are  two  great  perils  peculiar  to  this 
northern  waterway,  so  the  splendid  lighting  arrangements 
are  supported  by  excellent  and  powerful  fog-signals.  The 
northern  light  has  a  diaphone  giving  a  blare  lasting  three  and 
a  half  seconds  every  minute,  while  the  southern  station 
has  a  siren  giving  a  double  tone.  First  there  is  a  low  note 
of  two  and  a  half  seconds  followed  by  silence  for  two  and  a 
half  seconds  ;  then  a  high  note  of  two  and  a  half  seconds 
and  a  silent  interval  of  ii2-|  seconds.  This  signal  is  emitted 
from  a  point  midway  between  the  upper  and  lower  lights, 
the  air  for  the  blast  being  compressed  by  water-power. 
Another  humane  provision  is  the  depot  at  the  southern 
station,  which  is  kept  stocked  with  food  supplies  for  the 
benefit  of  shipwrecked  mariners.  In  1898  a  freighter 
carrying  a  deck-load  of  400  oxen  went  ashore  beneath  this 
light  and  became  a  hopeless  wreck.  The  crew,  realizing  the 
impossibility  of  saving  the  animals,  fired  the  ship,  so  that 
the  animals  were  suffocated  and  bruised,  thereby  sparing  the 
inhabitants  of  the  island  a  deadly  risk,  and  solving  the  diffi- 
cult problem  which  otherwise  would  have  arisen,  had  the 
brutes  been  drowned  in  the  ordinary  way  and  their  decom- 


o 

K 

H 

X 

o 

J 

►•" 

o 

a 

o 

K 

'^ 

^ 

•^i 

^ 

K 

^ 

a 

>^ 

> 

V 

r     - 


UPPER    TRAVERSE    LIGHTHOUSE    IN    THE    RIVER   ST.    LAWRENCE. 


!_'_:  !^S?ilM*^L£3 


Jivi-inirhsji  o)  l.uut.-Cot.  ir.  F.  Audei'soH. 
AN    "  ICE    SHOVE  "    UPON    THE    BACK    RANGE    LIGHT    IN    LAKE   ST.    PETER. 
This  photo  gives  a  striking  idea  of  the  trouble  experienced  with  ice  in  Canadian  waters. 


THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST    171 

posing  carcasses  cast  up  on  the  beach.  In  the  following 
year  the  Dominion  liner  Scotsman  crashed  on  to  the  rocks 
near  the  same  spot,  and  likewise  became  a  total  loss,  with  a 
death-roll  of  nine.  By  dint  of  great  effort  the  survivors 
scrambled  ashore,  and  had  a  weary  trudge  of  nine  miles 
over  a  broken,  rock-strewn  wilderness  to  gain  the  lighthouse 
station  and  assistance,  arriving  in  a  famished  and  exhausted 
condition,  to  be  tended  by  the  light-keepers  and  their 
families. 

Belle  He  is  a  lonely  station  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the 
word,  although  the  keepers  are  better  off  now  than  they 
were  a  few  years  ago.  The  straits  are  busy  in  the  summer, 
being  crowded  with  shipping,  but  with  the  coming  of 
November  all  life  disappears,  and  the  liners  do  not  return 
until  the  following  May  or  June.  The  rock  is  cut  off  from 
the  mainland  by  the  masses  of  ice  which  pile  up  in  the 
estuary,  together  with  the  crowds  of  icebergs  which  come 
down  from  Greenland.  For  six  months  the  guardians  of 
the  light  are  isolated  from  the  world  at  large,  although  they 
have  a  slender  link  of  communication  in  the  submarine 
cable.  But  the  storms  and  stress  of  winter  often  rupture 
this  line,  and,  as  the  wireless  installation  is  closed  down 
when  navigation  ceases,  the  keepers  and  their  families 
settle  down  to  a  silent,  weary  vigil,  knowing  nothing  of  the 
rest  of  the  world,  and  all  but  forgotten  by  civilization, 
because  an  interruption  in  the  cable  cannot  be  repaired 
until  the  ice  disappears. 

Even  when  the  Gulf  of  the  St.  Lawrence  is  entered,  the 
navigator  is  not  free  from  peril.  The  waterway  is  littered 
with  rocks  and  islands.  Among  these  are  Cofhn  Island 
and  Anticosti,  the  latter  being  the  private  property  of 
M.  Henri  Menier,  the  French  chocolate  magnate.  For  many 
years  the  St.  Lawrence  was  a  byword  to  navigation,  and 
wrecks  were  numerous.  It  was  shunned  by  navigators  and 
abhorred  by  underwriters.  Even  to  this  day  the  latter 
regard  it  askance,  and  the  insurance  rates  are  high  upon 
vessels  trading  in  these  waters.  Through  the  efforts  of  the 
Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries,  the  Dominion  Govern- 


172  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

ment  is  removing  this  stigma  from  their  great  marine 
avenue,  and  their  engineer  -  in  -  chief,  Lieutenant  -  Colonel 
William  P.  Anderson,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  much 
information  concerning  the  guardians  of  the  Canadian  coasts, 
has  displayed  commendable  enterprise  and  ingenuity  in 
combating  the  natural  odds  pitted  against  human  endeav- 
our to  render  the  coasts  of  the  country  more  friendly  to 
navigation. 

In  the  St.  Lawrence  the  great  foe  is  ice.  Its  onslaughts 
are  terrific,  and  none  but  the  strongest  works  has  a  chance 
to  survive  the  enormous  pressure  exerted  when  the  ice  is 
on  the  run  after  the  break  of  winter.  As  is  well  known, 
for  some  five  months  in  the  year  the  river  is  frozen  so  thick 
and  solid  that  it  will  support  a  train.  Naturally,  when  this 
armour  collapses,  and  the  floes  are  hurled  seawards  by  the 
current,  they  concentrate  their  destructive  energies  upon 
any  obstacles  in  their  way,  piling  up  in  huge  masses  weighing 
thousands  of  tons.  It  is  no  uncommon  circumstance  for 
the  floes  to  pack  in  a  jagged  heap  50  feet  high,  while 
all  the  time  there  is  a  continual  push  against  the  obstruc- 
tion. 

Under  these  circumstances  extreme  ingenuity  has  to  be 
displayed  in  the  erection  of  the  fixed  lights.  The  floating 
lights,  such  as  buoys,  escape  this  peril,  as  they  are  picked 
up  when  navigation  ceases,  to  be  housed  in  quarters  on 
dry  land,  and  replaced  when  the  river  is  open  once  more. 
Yet  it  is  not  only  the  ice  in  itself  which  causes  trouble. 
The  level  of  the  river  rises  when  the  ice  is  running,  and  this 
pressure  alone  is  enormous,  while  the  scouring  action  about 
the  foundations  is  terrific.  The  type  of  structure  adopted 
varies  with  the  situation  and  character  of  the  light.  The 
beacons  for  the  aid  of  navigation,  in  common  with  the 
practice  upon  American  waterways,  are  divided  into  groups 
or  ranges,  and  the  captain  picks  out  his  channel  by  keeping 
these  lights  and  marks  in  various  lines.  Maybe  four  or  five 
lights  have  to  be  brought  into  line,  and  accordingly  the 
height  of  the  unit  of  each  range  varies  from  its  fellow.  Thus, 
the  front  light  will  be  low,  that  behind  a  little  higher,  and 


THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST     173 

so  on,  until  the  last  light  in  the  group,  or  "  back  light  "  of 
the  range,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  lofty  structure. 

In  some  places  the  light  is  placed  in  mid-stream,  and 
perhaps  mounted  upon  a  massive,  high,  steel  caisson, 
resting  upon  a  concrete  foundation,  thereby  proving  im- 
movable to  the  most  powerful  of  ice-shoves.  Or  a  large  pier 
carried  out  in  ferro-concrete  and  pyramidal  in  shape  is  used. 
In  the  case  of  the  back  light  there  is  a  skeleton  tower,  which 
structure  is  employed  to  gain  the  necessary  height.  This 
is  carried  upon  a  high,  huge,  solid  plinth  of  concrete,  even 
if  built  against  the  bank.  The  frazil  ice  dams  the  channel, 
causing  the  water  to  rise,  and  unless  the  foregoing  precau- 
tions were  adopted  widespread  damage  would  result.  All 
the  lights  between  the  gulf  and  Montreal  have  to  be  pro- 
tected in  this  manner,  so  that  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ade- 
quate lighting  of  this  waterway  bristles  with  engineering 
difficulties  of  no  light  character,  and  is  expensive. 

The  Canadian  Government  also  is  responsible,  to  a  certain 
extent,  for  the  lighting  of  the  Great  Lakes,  which  is  de- 
scribed in  another  chapter,  where  similar  difficulties  prevail. 
It  has  also  a  long  stretch  of  the  most  rugged  part  of  the 
Pacific  coast  to  patrol,  aggregating  about  600  miles  between 
Victoria  and  Vancouver  to  the  Portland  Canal,  where 
Canadian  meets  Alaskan  territory.  This  is  a  wicked  coast, 
broken  and  battered,  as  well  as  flanked  by  an  outer  barrier 
of  islands,  recalling  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula  in  its  general 
topographical  characteristics.  During  the  past  few  years 
the  necessity  of  lighting  this  seaboard  adequately  has  become 
more  pronounced,  owing  to  the  creation  of  the  new  port  of 
Prince  Rupert,  a  few  miles  below  Alaskan  territory,  where 
the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  reaches  down  to  the  western  sea, 
and  the  growing  sea-borne  traffic  with  Alaska.  The  fact 
that  a  large  portion  of  this  navigation  is  maintained  through 
the  inside  passages,  bristling  with  sharp  turns,  narrow 
defiles,  and  jagged  headlands,  which  for  the  most  part  are 
wrapped  generally  in  fog,  renders  the  lighting  problem  more 
intricate.  Probably  the  most  important  light,  and  certainly 
the  loftiest  on  the  Pacific  seacoast  north  of  the  Equator, 


174  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

is  that  on  the  summit  of  Triangle  Island,  British  Columbia. 
It  was  built  in  1910,  and  although  the  lantern  itself  is  only 
46  feet  in  height,  the  elevation  of  the  headland  brings  the 
white  group-flashing  light  of  1,000,000  candle-power  700  feet 
above  the  sea,  giving  it  a  range  of  thirty-four  miles.     Four 
flashes  are  emitted  during  each  ten  seconds,  each  flash 
lasting  0'28  second  with  intervening  eclipses  each  of  i"28 
seconds,  with  an  eclipse  between  each  group  of  5*94  seconds. 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Anderson  has  introduced  a  new  type 
of  reinforced   concrete  lighthouse  with   flying  buttresses. 
The  latter  are  not  required  for  strength,  but  are  utilized  to 
give  greater  stiffness  to  the  tower,  as  a  column  100  feet  or 
more  in  height,  no  matter  how  strongly  it  may  be  built, 
must  vibrate  and  swing  in  high  winds.     Yet  it  is  desirable 
to  keep  the  lantern  as  steady  as  possible,  and  this  is  achieved 
much   more  completely  upon   the   above  principle.     The 
engineer-in-chief  of  the  lighthouse  authority  of  the  Canadian 
Government  considers  this  method  of  construction  to  be  the 
last  word  in  lighthouse  building,  and  has  completed  some 
notable  works  upon  these  lines.     Perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant is  the  Estevan  Point  light,  on  the  west  coast  of  Van- 
couver, at  a  place  known  as  Hole-in-the-Wall.     The  tower, 
of  octagonal,  tapering  form,  is  127  feet  in  height,  and  throws 
a  white  group-flashing  light,  comprising  three  flashes  each 
of  9'3  seconds  with  two  eclipses,  each  of  r^y  seconds,  and  a 
final  eclipse  of  6'36  seconds  between  each  group,  seventeen 
miles  out  to  sea.     The  surroundings  of  this  station  are  most 
romantic.     Landing  anywhere  in  its  vicinity  is  extremely 
difficult  and  dangerous,  and  the  engineer  had  to  select  a 
point  about  two  miles  distant  for  this  purpose.     From  this 
place  a  road  and  tramway  have  been  laid  through  a  grand 
primeval  forest,  such  as  is  to  be  found  only  upon  Vancouver 
Island,  wherein  roams  a  drove  of  magnificent  wild  cattle. 

While  the  Canadian  coast  cannot  point  to  any  lighthouse 
work  comparing  with  the  Eddystone,  Skerryvore,  or  Heaux 
de  Brehat,  yet  its  most  powerful  beacons  are  of  a  command- 
ing character,  representing  as  they  do  the  latest  and  best 
in  connection  with  coast  lighting.     There  is  an  enormous 


THE  GUARDIAN  LIGHTS  OF  CANADA'S  COAST     175 

stretch  of  difficult  shore  to  patrol,  along  which  has  to 
be  guided  an  immense  volume  of  valuable  shipping.  In 
addition  to  the  attended  lights,  the  Government  has  been 
extremely  enterprising  in  the  adoption  of  unattended 
beacons  (described  in  another  chapter),  miles  of  lonely, 
inhospitable  shore  being  guarded  in  this  way.  Although 
the  development  in  this  direction  is  of  comparatively  recent 
date,  the  protection  of  maritime  trade  is  being  carried  out 
in  accordance  with  a  comprehensive  policy,  so  that  within 
a  few  years  the  coasts  of  the  Dominion  will  be  rendered  as 
safe  to  the  shipping  of  the  world  as  human  ingenuity  can 
contrive. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  MINOT'S  LEDGE  LIGHT 

Lovers  of  Longfellow  will  recall  the  poet's  song  to  the 
lighthouse,  but  how  many  of  his  admirers  know  to  what 
beacon  these  stirring  lines  refer  ?  When  they  were  penned 
the  author  had  in  his  mind's  eye  an  example  of  the  engineer's 
handiwork  which  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  sea-rock  lights 
in  existence,  worthy  of  comparison  with  the  most  famous 
of  similar  structures  scattered  throughout  the  waters  wash- 
ing the  Old  World. 

This  is  the  far-famed  Minot's  Ledge  light,  warning  the 
seafarer  making  to  and  from  Boston  Bay  of  the  terrible 
peril  which  lurks  beneath  the  waves  on  the  southern  side 
of  the  entrance  to  this  busy  indentation.  "  Like  the  great 
giant  Christopher  it  stands,"  a  powerful  monument  to 
engineering  genius,  dogged  perseverance  against  overwhelm- 
ing odds,  and  a  grim,  bitter  contest  lasting  five  weary  years 
between  the  implacable  elements  and  human  endeavour. 
The  Minot  Ledge  i^s  one  of  those  jagged  reefs  which  thrust 
themselves  far  out  into  the  sea,  studded  with  pinnacles  and 
chisel-like  edges,  which  never,  or  very  seldom,  protrude 
above  the  waves.  Ship  after  ship  fouled  this  danger  spot, 
either  to  be  sunk  or  to  be  so  badly  crippled  that  it  barely 
could  contrive  to  crawl  to  safety. 

The  prosperity  of  Boston  was  threatened  by  this  peril  to 
shipping,  and  therefore  it  is  not  surprising  that  a  resolution 
was  passed  to  devise  some  ways  and  means  of  indicating  its 
presence  to  those  who  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships.  The  solu- 
tion was  offered  in  a  skeleton  structure  fashioned  from  iron, 
which  was  designed  by  Captain  W.  H.  Swift,  of  the  United 
States  Topographical  Engineers.  He  searched  the  reef 
through  and  through  to  ascertain  the  point  where  the  beacon 

176 


THE  MINOT'S  LEDGE  LIGHT  177 

should  be  placed  so  as  to  prove  of  the  greatest  value.  This 
in  itself  was  no  simple  matter,  inasmuch  as  Minot's  Ledge 
is  but  one  of  a  great  area  of  wicked  crags,  which  collectively 
are  known  as  the  Cohasset  Rocks,  and  which  straggle 
over  the  sea-bed  in  all  directions.  After  the  position  had 
been  reconnoitred  thoroughly,  and  sounding  and  levels  had 
been  taken,  the  engineer  decided  that  the  most  seaward 
rock  of  the  group,  known  as  the  Outer  Minot,  would  be  the 
most  strategical  position,  and  accordingly  he  planned  to 
erect  his  beacon  thereon. 

It  was  a  daring  proposal,  because  the  reef  at  the  point 
selected  only  exposes  some  25  feet  of  its  mass  above  the 
falling  tide,  and  then  the  highest  point  of  the  rock  scarcely 
thrusts  itself  3|-  feet  into  the  air.  It  was  realized  that  the 
periods  of  working  between  the  tides  would  inevitably  be 
very  brief,  while  even  then,  owing  to  the  open  position 
of  the  ridge,  a  landing  would  only  be  possible  in  very  smooth 
weather,  and  the  men  would  have  to  suffer  exposure  to  the 
fury  of  the  waves  as  they  dashed  over  the  ledge. 

Captain  Swift  decided  upon  a  skeleton  iron  structure,  not 
only  because  it  would  be  quicker  to  erect  and  would  cost 
less,  but  because  it  would  offer  the  least  resistance  to  the 
waves,  which  would  be  free  to  expend  their  energy  among 
the  stilts.  The  task  was  taken  in  hand  at  the  first  favour- 
able opportunity,  and,  the  system  lending  itself  to  rapid 
construction,  marked  progress  was  made  every  time  the 
workmen  succeeded  in  getting  on  the  ledge.  The  lantern 
and  keepers'  quarters  were  supported  upon  nine  piles,  60  feet 
above  the  rock.  The  legs  were  so  disposed  that  eight 
described  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  while  the  ninth  con- 
stituted the  axis. 

This  tower  was  completed  in  1848,  and  for  the  first  time 
the  navigator  making  these  treacherous  waters  received  a 
powerful  warning  to  keep  clear  of  Minot's  Ledge.  For 
three  years  the  beacon  survived  the  battering  of  wind  and 
wave,  but  its  welcome  beam  was  last  seen  on  the  night  of 
April  16,  185 1.  In  the  spring  of  that  year  a  gale  of  terrific 
fury  beat  upon  the  Massachusetts  coast.     The  wind  fresh- 

12 


178  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

ened  on  April  13  ;  the  next  day  it  rose  to  its  full  force,  and 
did  not  abate  for  four  days.  The  good  people  of  Boston 
grew  apprehensive  concerning  the  plight  of  the  two  keepers 
of  the  lonely  Minot's  light,  but,  however  willing  they  might 
have  been  to  have  put  out  to  the  beacon,  they  Were  absolutely 
impotent  before  the  ferocity  of  the  elements.  Time  after 
time  the  light  vanished  from  sight  as  it  was  enveloped  in  an 
angry  curling  mountain  of  water.  On  April  17  the  doleful 
tolling  of  the  lighthouse  bell  was  heard,  but  the  light  was 
never  seen  again.  The  structure  had  slipped  completely 
from  sight,  together  with  its  faithful  keepers,  swallowed  by 
the  hungry  Atlantic.  Evidently  the  wail  of  the  bell  was  a 
last  plea  for  assistance,  because  no  doubt  the  lighthouse 
had  bowed  to  the  storm  and  was  tottering  when  the  tolling 
rang  out.  But  the  call  brought  no  help  ;  it  was  the  funeral 
knell  of  the  guardians  of  the  beacon.  When  the  sea  went 
down  a  boat  pushed  off  to  the  ledge,  and  all  that  was  seen 
were  a  few  bent  piles.  Captain  Swift  had  done  his  work 
well.  The  waves  could  not  tear  his  beacon  up  by  the  roots, 
so  had  snapped  off  the  piles  like  carrots,  and  had  carried 
away  the  lantern. 

.This  sensational  disaster,  after  a  brief  existence  of  three 
years,  did  not  augur  well  for  the  permanence  of  a  light  upon 
this  precarious  ledge.  The  Outer  Minot  appeared  to  be 
determined  to  continue  its  plunder  of  ships,  cargoes,  and 
lives,  untrammelled.  Accordingly,  for  three  years  no  effort 
was  made  to  bring  about  its  subjugation. 

In  1855  General  Barnard,  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
engineers  which  the  United  States  has  ever  produced, 
brought  forward  the  plans  for  a  structure  which  he  thought 
would  resist  the  most  formidable  attacks  of  wind  and  wave. 
He  took  Rudyerd's  famous  Eddystone  tower  as  his  pattern. 
This  was  perhaps  the  strongest  design  that  could  be  carried 
out  against  the  sea,  having  one  weak  point  only — it  was 
built  of  wood.  General  Barnard  contemplated  a  similar 
structure  for  Minot's  Ledge,  but  in  masonry. 

The  Lighthouse  Board,  which  had  recently  been  inaugu- 
rated to  control  the  lighthouses  around  the  coasts  of  the 


THE    MIXOTS    LEDGE    LIGHT. 

Marking  the  rock  off  Boston  Harbour,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  works  completed  by  the  Hghthouse 
builders  of  the  United  States.     It  forms  the  theme  of  Longfellow's  well-known  poem. 


THE  MINOT'S  LEDGE  LIGHT  179 

country,  examined  the  idea  minutely,  and  submitted  the 
design  to  the  most  expert  criticism  and  discussion,  but  all 
were  so  impressed  with  its  outstanding  features  that  they 
decided  to  support  it  whole-heartedly.  A  minute  survey  of 
the  rock  was  prepared,  and  the  plans  were  straight  away 
perfected  for  the  preparation  of  the  masonry  on  shore.  So 
carefully  was  this  work  carried  out,  that,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  blocks  of  masonry  constituting  the  foundations, 
which  had  to  be  prepared  on  the  site,  and  some  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  method  of  construction,  the  original  ideas  were 
fulfilled. 

Work  was  commenced  in  1855,  the  building  operations 
being  placed  in  the  hands  of  B.  S.  Alexander,  at  that  time 
Lieutenant  of  Engineers,  and  the  successful  completion  of 
the  work  was  due  in  a  very  great  measure  to  his  ability  and 
ingenuity,  because  the  whole  undertaking  was  placed  in 
his  hands  and  he  had  to  overcome  difficulties  at  every  turn 
as  they  arose. 

The  builder  was  handicapped  in  every  way.  First  there 
was  the  brief  period  in  which  operations  could  be  carried 
out  upon  the  site,  the  working  season  extending  only  from 
April  I  to  September  15  in  each  year.  This  is  not  to  say 
that  the  masons  were  able  to  toil  upon  the  rock  continuously 
every  day  during  this  interval — far  from  it.  In  order  to 
get  the  foundations  laid  there  were  three  essentials — a  per- 
fectly smooth  sea,  a  dead  calm,  and  low  spring-tides.  Need- 
less to  say,  it  was  on  very  rare  occasions  indeed  that  these 
three  requirements  were  in  harmony.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
they  could  occur  only  about  six  times  during  every  lunar 
month — three  times  during  full  moon,  and  three  at  the 
change.  Even  then,  either  the  wind  or  the  sea  intervened 
to  nullify  the  benefits  arising  from  the  lowest  tides.  So 
much  so  that,  although  work  commenced  at  daybreak  on 
Sunday,  July  i,  1855,  only  130  working  hours  were  possible 
upon  the  rock  before  labours  ceased  for  the  season  in  the 
middle  of  the  following  September. 

On  gaining  the  rock.  Lieutenant  Alexander  decided  to 
make  use  of  the  holes  which  had  been  driven  into  the  granitic 


i8o  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

mass  by  Captain  Swift  to  receive  the  piles  of  the  previous 
structure.  The  twisted  and  broken  pieces  of  iron  were 
withdrawn  and  the  holes  cleaned  out.  Simultaneously  the 
upper  surface  of  the  rock  was  pared  and  trimmed  by  the  aid 
of  chisels,  which  was  no  easy  task,  because  at  times  the 
masons  were  compelled  to  manipulate  their  tools  as  best 
they  could  in  two  or  three  feet  of  water.  This  preparation 
of  the  rock  to  receive  the  base  constituted  one  of  the  most 
notable  features  of  the  work.  In  the  greater  number  of 
other  outstanding  achievements  upon  sea-rocks  the  surface 
of  the  latter  has  been  above  the  waves  at  lowest  spring- 
tides, whereas  in  this  case  a  great  part  of  the  foundation 
work  was  continuously  submerged. 

This  preparation  of  the  rock-face  necessitated  the  final 
trimming  and  shaping  upon  the  site  of  many  of  the  masonry 
blocks  forming  the  root  of  the  tower.  They  could  not 
possibly  be  prepared  ashore  to  bring  about  the  tight  fit 
which  was  imperative.  Accordingly,  all  but  the  bottom 
faces  of  the  blocks  were  prepared  in  the  depot  on  the  main- 
land, and  they  were  then  shipped  to  the  ledge  for  final  paring 
and  trimming. 

The  attachment  of  the  bottom  courses  to  the  rock-face 
was  carried  out  very  ingeniously.  Bags  of  sand  were  brought 
on  to  the  rock  and  laid  around  the  spot  upon  which  a  par- 
ticular block  of  stone  was  to  be  laid.  The  sacks,  being 
filled  with  sand,  were  pliable,  so  that,  when  deposited,  they 
adapted  themselves  to  the  contour  of  the  ledge,  and  pre- 
vented the  water  making  its  way  in  under  the  rampart. 
The  water  within  this  small  dam  was  then  removed,  sponges 
being  used  in  the  final  emptying  task,  so  as  to  suck  out  the 
salt  sea  from  the  cracks  and  crevices,  leaving  the  surface  on 
which  the  block  of  stone  was  to  be  laid  quite  dry.  A  film 
of  cement  was  then  trowelled  upon  the  rock  surface,  and 
upon  this  was  laid  a  sheet  of  muslin.  The  inclusion  of  the 
muslin  was  a  wise  precaution,  because  while  the  work  was 
in  progress  a  wandering  wave  was  liable  to  curl  over  the 
rock,  swamping  the  small  dried  space,  when,  but  for  the 
presence  of  the  muslin,  the  cement  would  have  been  carried 


THE  MINOT'S  LEDGE  LIGHT  i8i 

away.  At  the  same  time  the  cement  was  able  to  penetrate 
the  meshes  of  the  musHn  when  the  stone  was  deposited,  so 
as  to  grip  the  surface  of  the  latter  and  to  hold  it  tightly 
in  position. 

Under  such  abnormal  conditions  of  working  the  masons 
had  many  exciting  moments.  No  matter  how  smooth  was 
the  sea,  several  renegade  waves  would  plunge  over  the  ledge. 
The  masons  had  to  be  prepared  for  these  unwelcome  visitors, 
and  precautions  had  to  be  introduced  to  prevent  them  being 
washed  off  their  slender  foothold.  A  substantial  iron 
staging  was  erected  over  the  Working  area  on  the  rock,  to 
facilitate  the  handling  of  the  building  material.  A  number 
of  ropes  were  attached  to  this  staging,  the  free  ends  of  which 
dangled  beside  the  workmen.  These  were  the  life-lines,  one 
being  provided  for  each  man.  A  lookout  was  posted,  who, 
when  he  saw  a  wave  approaching  and  bent  upon  sweeping 
the  rock,  gave  a  shrill  signal.  Instantly  each  workman 
dropped  his  tools,  clutched  his  life-line  tightly,  threw  him- 
self prostrate  on  the  rock,  and  allowed  the  wave  to  pass  over 
him.  The  situation  certainly  was  uncomfortable,  and  the 
men  often  toiled  in  soddened  clothes,  but  an  involuntary 
bath  was  preferable  to  the  loss  of  a  life  or  to  broken  limbs. 

Work  advanced  so  slowly  that  during  the  first  two  years, 
which  were  devoted  to  the  excavation  of  the  pit  and  the 
preparations  of  the  rock-face,  only  287  hours'  work  were 
accomplished.  In  the  third  year  this  task  was  completed, 
and  four  stones  laid  in  a  further  130  hours  21  minutes.  By 
the  end  of  the  working  season  of  1859  twenty-six  courses 
were  finished,  so  that,  while  the  volume  of  work  fulfilled  in 
1,102  hours  21  minutes,  and  spread  over  five  years,  certainly 
was  not  imposing,  it  was  remarkable  under  the  circum- 
stances. 

The  stones  for  the  foundations  were  sent  from  shore 
with  the  indication  —3^5",  — 2^9",  — 1''3",  and  so  on,  indi- 
cating that  these  stones  were  prepared  for  positions  3  feet 
5  inches,  2  feet  9  inches,  and  so  on,  below  zero.  And  the 
zero  mark  was  21  inches  below  water  !  Above  the  zero 
mark  the  stones  were  prefixed  by  a  "  plus  "  sign. 


1 82  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  shaft  is  purely  conical,  and  solid  except  for  a  central 
well  extending  from  the  foundations  up  to  the  level  of  the 
entrance.  The  successive  courses  of  stones  were  secured 
to  one  another,  and  each  stone  was  attached  to  its  neighbour 
in  the  ring  by  the  aid  of  heavy  iron  dogs,  so  that  the  lower 
part  of  the  shaft  forms  a  practically  solid  homogenous  mass. 
What  are  known  as  continuous  "  dowels "  were  sunk 
through  each  course  of  masonry  into  the  holes  in  the  solid 
rock  prepared  by  Captain  Swift  for  his  skeleton  light,  this 
further  attachment  of  the  mass  to  the  ledge  being  con- 
tinued until  the  twelfth  course  was  gained.  Thus  additional 
security  is  obtained  by  anchoring  the  tower  firmly  to  the  reef. 

The  solid  portion  of  the  building  is  40  feet  in  height  from 
the  level  of  the  first  complete  ring  of  stones,  and  the  tower 
is  80  feet  high  to  the  lantern  gallery.  The  over-all  height 
to  the  top  of  the  lantern  cupola  is  i02f  feet,  while  the  focal 
plane  is  84^  feet  above  mean  high -water.  The  first  stone 
was  laid  on  July  9,  1857,  while  the  masons  completed  their 
duties  on  June  29,  i860,  so  that  five  years  were  occupied 
upon  the  work.  In  erection  3,514  tons  of  rough  and  2,367 
tons  of  hammered  stone,  in  addition  to  1,079  numbered 
stones,  were  used,  and  the  total  cost,  including  the  light- 
keepers'  houses  on  the  mainland,  was  ^^60,000,  or  $300,000, 
so  that  it  ranks  among  the  more  costly  lights  which  have 
been  provided  for  the  seafarer's  benefit. 

On  November  15,  i860,  nine  and  a  half  years  after  the 
destruction  of  the  first  beacon,  the  light  was  once  more 
thrown  from  Minot's  Ledge  for  the  benefit  of  passing  ships. 
The  light  is  of  the  second  order,  visible  fourteen  and  three- 
quarter  miles  out  to  sea,  and  is  of  the  flashing  type,  sig- 
nalling "  143  "  every  thirty  seconds  thus — one  flash  followed 
by  three  seconds'  darkness,  four  flashes  with  three  seconds' 
eclipse,  and  three  flashes  with  an  interval  of  fifteen  seconds' 
darkness. 

The  tower  has  been  subjected  to  repeated  prodigious 
assaults,  the  north-east  gales  in  particular  thundering  upon 
this  reef  with  tremendous  fury,  but  it  has  withstood  all 
attacks  with  complete  success. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  TILLAMOOK  ROCK  LIGHT-STATION 

While  the  Northern  Pacific  Ocean  is  the  loneliest  stretch 
of  salt  water  in  the  world,  yet  it  possesses  one  or  two  busy 
corners.  Prominent  among  the  latter  is  that  where  it 
washes  the  shores  of  the  United  States  around  the  entrance 
to  the  mighty  Columbia  River,  The  estuary  is  wide,  and, 
although  navigation  is  handicapped  by  a  bar,  it  is  well 
protected.  But  coming  up  from  the  south  there  is  a 
stretch  of  terribly  forbidding  coastline,  with  the  cliffs  at 
places  towering  1,500  feet  or  more  into  the  air  and  dropping 
sheer  into  the  water.  Rock-slides  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, and  the  beach  is  littered  with  heavy  falls  from  above. 
Here  and  there  protuberances  rise  from  the  sea,  formed  of 
rock  sufficiently  dense  and  hard  to  withstand  more  effectively 
the  process  of  erosion,  only  to  constitute  fearful  menaces 
to  navigation.  Often  the  mainland  is  completely  obscured, 
either  by  streaks  of  mist  or  heavy  clouds  of  smoke  produced 
by  forest  fires,  which  in  the  dry  season  rage  with  great 
violence.  A  ship  caught  within  the  toils  of  this  stern  coast 
has  no  possible  chance  of  escape,  while  the  crew  would  find 
it  difficult  to  get  ashore,  inasmuch  as  at  places  there  is  not 
a  single  landing-place  within  a  distance  of  twenty  miles. 

Owing  to  the  coast  being  frequently  blotted  from  view, 
and  to  the  fact  that  this  stretch  of  sea  is  swept  by  furious 
storms,  the  plight  of  the  mariner  making  to  or  from  the 
Columbia  River  became  exceedingly  precarious.  The  worst 
tragedy  of  these  waters  was  enacted  on  the  dark  and  stormy 
night  of  January  3,  1881,  when  the  sailing-ship  Lupata  lost 
her  way  and  went  to  pieces  on  the  rocks  off  Tillamook 
Head. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  is  not  surprising  that  an 

183 


1 84  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

outcry  arose  for  protection  along  this  lonely  reach  of  Oregon's 
jagged  shoreline.  The  authorities  responded  to  the  agita- 
tion by  the  promise  to  erect  a  lighthouse,  once  they  should 
have  decided  the  site,  which  was  the  really  perplexing 
question.  In  the  first  instance  it  was  thought  that  its 
location  upon  the  mainland  would  suffice,  but  a  survey 
betrayed  the  futility  of  such  a  choice.  The  light  would  be 
too  elevated  to  be  of  any  service  ;  for  the  greater  part  of 
its  time  it  would  be  rendered  invisible  by  land  fogs.  Then, 
again,  it  would  mean  cutting  a  road  for  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles  through  heavy,  undulating  country  and  primeval 
forest  to  gain  the  point,  as  the  verdant  sea  of  green  timber 
extends  to  the  very  brink  of  the  cliffs. 

After  prolonged  consideration,  it  was  decided  to  erect 
the  light  upon  the  Tillamook  Rock.  This  is  a  hard  mass  of 
basalt,  rising  boldly  from  the  water  to  a  height  of  120  feet, 
which,  when  viewed  from  one  side,  presented  the  appearance 
of  a  clenched  fist.  It  stands  about  a  mile  off  the  mainland, 
twenty  miles  south  of  the  Columbia  River  mouth,  and  drops 
plumb  into  the  sea,  where  the  lead  gives  readings  ranging 
from  96  to  240  feet.  The  whole  area  of  the  rock  is  less  than 
one  acre,  and  it  is  split  almost  in  two ;  another  isolated 
knot  of  basalt,  upon  which  the  seas  break  heavily  when  a 
storm  is  raging,  rears  its  shaggy  head  into  the  air  near  by 
at  low-tide.  The  only  possible  landing-point  is  on  the  east 
side,  where  there  is  a  beach  sloping  upwards  sharply  from 
the  water  to  the  crest.  When  the  ocean  is  roused  the  sight 
certainly  is  terrifying.  The  waves  fall  with  shivering  force 
upon  the  base  of  the  rock,  to  rush  up  its  ragged  sides  and 
sweep  right  over  its  crest  in  a  dense  curtain  of  angrily 
frothing  water  and  whipping  spray. 

Despite  its  fearsome  character,  this  rock  constituted  the 
most  serviceable  situation  for  a  light,  for  the  reason  that, 
being  a  mile  from  the  shore,  it  was  free  from  land  fogs  and 
clouds.  The  decision  of  the  authorities  depended  upon 
three  factors  only — that  a  landing  could  be  made,  the  rock 
occupied,  and  the  requisite  building  materials  unloaded. 
The  introduction  of  such  a  saving  clause  was  politic,  because 


THE  TILLAMOOK  ROCK  LIGHT-STATION       185 

at  first  it  seemed  as  if  the  rock  would  defy  the  gaining 
of  a  foothold.  The  ghastly  failure  attending  the  survey,  as 
described  in  a  previous  chapter,  brought  public  opinion  into 
dead  opposition  to  the  project,  and  many  fearsome  stories 
were  circulated  sedulously  up  and  down  the  coast  and 
among  the  towns  fringing  the  Columbia  River  concerning 
the  perils,  hardships,  and  terrible  death-roll,  which  would 
attend  any  attempt  to  place  a  beacon  on  this  rock. 

After  the  disaster  the  authorities  pressed  forward  the 
enterprise  with  greater  vigour  than  ever,  so  as  to  get  work 
well  under  way  before  public  opinion  would  be  able  to 
make  its  influence  felt  upon  the  unsophisticated  minds  of 
workmen  required  to  carry  out  the  undertaking.  A  daring, 
determined,  and  energetic  leader  was  secured  in  Mr.  A. 
Ballantyne,  and  he  was  deputed  to  rally  a  force  of  eight  or 
more  highly  skilled  quarrymen  with  whom  to  proceed  to 
Astoria,  where  the  land  headquarters  were  to  be  established. 
He  was  informed  that  upon  arrival  at  this  point  he  would 
find  everything  in  readiness  for  his  immediate  departure  to 
the  rock,  with  all  essentials  to  enable  him  to  commence 
work  at  once  and  to  provide  quarters  for  the  workmen, 
who  would  be  compelled  to  suffer  isolation  and  a  certain 
amount  of  discomfort  for  weeks  at  a  time.  It  was  im- 
possible to  take  more  than  a  handful  of  men  at  first,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  landing  provisions. 

Mr.  Ballantyne  started  off  with  his  small  picked  force, 
reached  Astoria  on  September  24,  1879,  and  there  suffered 
his  first  check.  The  autumn  gales  had  sprung  up,  rendering 
approach  to  the  rock  absolutely  hopeless.  There  was  no 
alternative  ;  he  must  wait  until  the  weather  moderated. 
As  this  might  be  a  question  of  a  few  hours,  days,  or  perhaps 
a  week  or  two,  the  chief  grew  anxious  concerning  his  force. 
If  the  men,  having  nothing  to  do,  wandered  idly  about  the 
town,  making  acquaintance  with  all  and  sundry  and  listening 
to  gossip,  then  they  could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the 
extraordinary  stories  concerning  dangers,  hardships,  perils, 
and  adventures ;  would  conclude  that  the  Tillamook  was  a 
"  hoodoo  "   rock ;    and   would   desert   him  promptly.     To 


1 86  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

guard  against  this  contingency,  the  quarrymen  were  hurried 
off  and  temporarily  housed  in  the  old  light-keeper's  dwelling 
at  the  Cape  Disappointment  light,  some  miles  away  on  the 
northern  portal  of  the  estuary,  where  they  were  safe  from 
pernicious  influences. 

After  twenty-six  days  of  enforced  idleness  the  squad  was 
picked  up  by  a  revenue  cutter,  which  steamed  to  the  rock, 
and  made  fast  to  a  buoy  that  had  been  laid  previously  for 
mooring  the  vessels  deputed  to  transport  building  materials 
and  other  requirements.  With  extreme  difficulty  four  men 
were  got  on  the  rock,  together  with  a  supply  of  hammers, 
drills,  iron  ring-bolts,  a  stove,  provisions,  supplies,  and  an 
abundance  of  canvas,  with  which  the  advance  staff  were 
to  erect  temporary  shelters  and  to  make  themselves  as 
comfortable  as  they  could.  While  the  work  was  in  progress 
the  wind  freshened,  the  swell  rose,  and  the  boat  had  to  retire 
hurriedly  before  the  remainder  of  the  force  could  be  landed ; 
but  five  days  later  they  were  transferred  to  the  rock,  together 
with  further  provisions  and  supplies,  as  well  as  a  derrick. 

The  little  party  soon  received  a  taste  of  what  life  would  be 
in  this  lonely  spot.  Three  days  after  the  second  landing, 
and  before  they  had  shaken  down  to  their  strange  sur- 
roundings, a  gale  sprang  up.  Heavy  seas  pounded  the  rock, 
and  the  waves,  mounting  its  vertical  face,  threw  themselves 
over  its  crest,  drenching  the  workmen  and  their  sleeping 
blankets.  It  was  a  startling  episode,  but  it  became  so 
frequent  that  the  quarrymen  became  inured  to  their  fate, 
and  were  not  perturbed  in  any  way,  except  when  the  Pacific 
was  roused  to  exceptional  fury. 

When  the  first  four  men  gained  the  rock  it  was  seen  that 
the  landing  of  material,  especially  the  heavier  incidentals, 
would  constitute  the  greatest  difficulty.  Then  an  ingenious 
idea  was  advanced.  Why  not  rig  a  heavy  rope  between 
the  mast  of  the  vessel  and  the  top  of  the  rock,  draw  it  taut, 
and  devise  a  traveller  to  run  to  and  fro  ?  It  was  a  practical 
suggestion  and  was  adopted  forthwith.  With  much  diffi- 
culty a  4-|-inch  rope  was  towed  from  the  vessel — to  the  mast 
of  which  one  end  was  secured — to  the  rock,  and  grabbed 


O       "^  'p 


o     -- 
O     "1 


THE    CONQUEST   OF   THE   TILLAMOOK. 

The  top  of  the  crag  was  blasted  off  to  provide  a  level  space  for  the  lighthouse. 


THE   TERRIBLE   TILLAMOOK   ROCK. 

Showing  how  the  menace  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea  on  one  side. 


THE  TILLAMOOK  ROCK  LIGHT-STATION       187 

by  those  in  occupation.  This  end  was  anchored  firmly,  and 
constituted  the  track.  Then  a  large  single  block  was  rigged 
to  this  main  line  in  such  a  way  that  it  could  move  freely 
to  and  fro  along  the  cable.  This  block  was  provided  with 
a  heavy  hook  on  which  the  weights  could  be  slung.  Other 
blocks  were  fixed  on  the  vessel  and  on  the  rock,  while  an 
endless  line,  passing  through  these  blocks  at  each  end,  and 
attached  to  the  shank  of  the  hook  on  the  travelling  block, 
enabled  the  traveller  to  be  pulled  freely  and  easily  in  either 
direction. 

Both  men  and  supplies  were  transferred  from  ship  to  shore 
by  this  primitive,  albeit  ingenious,  system.  The  men  were 
carried  in  a  novel  device,  described  as  a  "breeches-buoy,"  such 
as  is  used  with  the  rocket  life-saving  apparatus,  but  of  very 
crude  design  improvised  on  the  spot.  It  was  contrived 
from  an  ordinary  circular  rubber  life-preserver,  to  which  a 
pair  of  trousers  cut  short  at  the  knees  were  lashed  tightly. 
This  was  suspended  from  the  block-hook  by  means  of  three 
short  lengths  of  rope.  The  trip  through  the  air  certainly 
was  novel,  and  not  free  from  excitement ;  indeed,  there  was 
just  sufficient  spice  of  adventure  about  it  to  appeal  to  the 
rough-and-ready,  intrepid  spirits  who  constituted  the  forces 
of  the  lighthouse  engineer.  Also,  owing  to  the  primitive 
character  of  the  apparatus,  there  was  just  the  chance  that 
something  would  go  wrong  when  the  man  was  between  ship 
and  rock.  The  breeches  were  provided  to  hold  the  man 
in  a  safe  position  while  in  the  air,  to  guard  against  a  loss  of 
balance  and  tipping  out ;  while  should  anything  give  way, 
and  the  man  make  an  unexpected  plunge  into  the  water, 
the  life-preserver  would  keep  him  afloat  until  a  boat  could 
draw  alongside  to  rescue  him. 

There  was  another  factor  which  had  to  be  taken  into 
consideration,  and  which  certainly  contributed  to  the 
novelty  of  the  trip.  As  the  boat  responded  to  the  action 
of  the  waves  the  rope  alternately  drew  tight  and  sagged. 
When  she  rolled  towards  the  rock  the  cable  was  slackened, 
and  the  man  generally  had  a  ducking  ;  the  next  moment, 
when  the  vessel  rolled  in  the  opposite  direction,  he  was 


1 88  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

whisked  unceremoniously  and  suddenly  into  the  air.  It  was 
like  being  suspended  at  the  end  of  a  piece  of  elastic.  The 
men  for  the  most  part  enjoyed  the  fun  of  the  journey,  and 
considered  it  a  new  and  exhilarating  "  divarshun."  Among 
themselves  the  effort  was  to  travel  in  either  direction  so  as 
to  escape  a  cold  douche  on  the  journey.  When  the  water 
was  rough,  speculation  took  the  form  of  guessing  how  many 
dips  into  the  water  would  be  made  before  either  terminus 
was  gained. 

This  novel  landing  method  provoked  one  amusing  incident. 
The  supply-boat  came  out  to  the  rock  one  day  bringing  a  new 
raw  hand.  The  cableway  was  rigged  up,  and  the  workman 
prepared  for  his  ride  to  the  rock.  But  the  man  was  some- 
what corpulent,  and  could  not  be  thrust  through  the  pre- 
server. This  was  an  unexpected  contretemps,  and  it  seemed 
as  if  the  superintendent  would  have  to  let  his  recruit  return. 
But  Ballantyne  did  not  worry  over  trifles,  neither  did  he 
relish  the  idea  of  losing  a  hand  after  having  him  brought  so 
far,  so  he  put  forward  a  somewhat  daring  proposal.  He 
told  the  captain  of  the  steamer  to  lash  the  workman  to  the 
top  of  the  buoy,  and  they  would  pull  him  ashore  all  right. 
The  labourer  was  scared  out  of  his  wits  at  this  suggestion, 
and  resented  being  handled  as  if  he  were  a  balk  of  timber. 
Why,  even  the  perishable  articles  were  unloaded  in  casks 
to  protect  them  from  the  wet.  He  expressed  his  determina- 
tion to  see  them  to  perdition  before  he  would  make  a  trip 
through  the  air  under  such  conditions.  Ballantyne  was 
somewhat  crestfallen  at  the  cold  reception  of  his  brilliant 
idea,  so  told  the  captain  to  take  the  workman  back  to 
Astoria,  and  to  ransack  the  place  to  discover  a  buoy  which 
would  be  big  enough  to  fit  him. 

Two  days  later  the  vessel  returned  with  the  larger  buoy 
and  also  the  corpulent  quarryman.  His  second  glimpse  of 
the  primitive  travelling  frightened  him  worse  than  ever, 
and  he  point  blank  refused  to  budge.  In  order  to  reassure 
the  raw  hand,  Ballantyne  hauled  the  buoy  ashore,  and, 
jumping  into  it,  made  a  journey,  to  illustrate  that  the 
system  was  perfectly  safe,  and  that  one  need  not  even  get 


THE  TILLAMOOK  ROCK  LIGHT-STATION       189 

wet.  But  Ballantyne's  demonstration  was  rather  unfor- 
tunate. The  cable  was  slack,  and  the  ship  rolled  heavily. 
Result :  the  superintendent  was  dragged  through  the  water 
for  nearly  the  whole  distance,  and  at  times  nothing  of  him 
could  be  seen.  When  he  landed  on  the  boat,  half-winded 
and  drenched  to  the  skin,  the  quarryman  was  scared  more 
than  ever,  and  announced  his  intention  to  return  to  Astoria. 
Ballantyne  cajoled,  coaxed,  argued,  and  stormed,  in  turn, 
but  to  no  avail.  Then  another  idea  came  to  his  fertile  mind. 
If  the  man  would  not  travel  via  the  breeches-buoy,  why  not 
send  him  ashore  in  a  bos'n's  chair  ?  This  was  rigged  up 
satisfactorily,  and  therein  the  workman  consented  to  go 
ashore,  though  not  without  the  display  of  considerable 
trepidation  and  anxiety  to  keep  out  of  the  water.  They 
got  him  on  the  rock  safely,  and  without  so  much  as  wetting 
the  soles  of  his  feet.  The  quarryman  by  his  resolute  oppo- 
sition set  up  a  record.  He  was  the  first  man  to  land  dry  on 
the  Tillamook. 

Subsequently  this  novel  and,  so  far  as  it  went,  efficient 
method  of  "  quick  transit  "  was  superseded  when  the  men 
on  the  rock  got  their  big  derrick  to  work.  The  long  arm  of 
this  appliance  leaned  over  the  water  far  enough  to  pick  up 
the  goods  direct  from  the  deck  of  the  vessel  moored  off  the 
rock.  This  system  was  quicker,  and  enabled  the  goods  to 
be  got  ashore  unsoiled. 

The  first  men  to  land  found  the  rock  in  the  occupation 
of  sea-lions,  who  swarmed  its  scaly  sides  in  huge  numbers, 
even  making  their  way  to  the  crest  to  bask  in  the  sunshine. 
These  tenants  at  first  resented  the  white  man's  invasion, 
and  were  somewhat  troublesome ;  but  at  last  they  recognized 
that  their  eviction  was  certain,  so  suddenly  deserted  in  a 
body  to  another  equally  wild  spot  farther  south. 

The  first  task  was  the  preparation  of  the  site  for  the  build- 
ing. The  fist-like  overhanging  crest  was  attacked  to  prepare 
a  foundation,  thereby  reducing  the  height  from  120  to  91  feet. 
The  rock  surface  was  scarred  and  riven  in  a  fantastic 
manner,  owing  to  the  scouring  action  of  the  waves  eroding 
the  soft  portions  leaving  the  hard  rock  behind  in  the  form 


190  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

of  needles,  scales,  and  ugly  crevices.  The  outer  part  of  the 
rock,  moreover,  was  found  to  be  of  an  unreliable  character, 
being  more  or  less  rotten,  while  the  core,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  intensely  hard,  and  promised  an  excellent  foundation 
for  the  beacon.  The  superfluous  mass  was  removed  by 
blasting,  this  being  carried  out  with  extreme  care  and  in 
small  sections  at  a  time.  The  largest  blasts  did  not  remove 
more  than  130  cubic  yards,  or  tons,  of  debris  at  one  time. 
This  slow  blasting,  by  handfuls  as  it  were,  was  necessary  so 
as  not  to  shatter  or  impair  the  solidity  of  the  heart  of  the 
rock,  which  was  to  support  the  buildings. 

Drilling  and  blasting  were  carried  out  in  the  face  of  great 
difficulties.  Rain,  rough  seas,  spray,  and  heavy  winds, 
combined  to  thwart  the  little  band  of  workers  toiling  strenu- 
ously in  solemn  loneliness  upon  this  bleak  crag.  Often  days 
would  pass  without  any  tangible  impression  being  made 
upon  the  surface.  The  drilling  holes  would  be  swamped, 
and  unless  care  was  observed  the  powder  charges  ran  the 
risk  of  being  damped  and  rendered  impotent  or  uncertain 
in  firing.  In  the  attack  upon  the  crest  the  workmen 
distributed  themselves  around  the  crown.  On  the  precipi- 
tous side,  as  there  was  not  a  friendly  ledge  on  which  to 
secure  a  foothold  to  work  the  drills,  bolts  were  driven  into 
the  rock-face,  from  which  staging  was  suspended  by  ropes, 
and  on  this  swinging,  crazy  foothold  the  men  drove  their 
tools  with  salt  fleece  whirling  round  them. 

Until  the  men  were  able  to  erect  more  or  less  permanent 
quarters,  their  plight  at  times  was  pitiable.  The  canvas 
was  cut  up  and  an  A-tent  was  rigged  up.  It  was  a  cramped 
home,  measuring  16  feet  long  by  6  feet  wide,  while  the  ridge 
pole  was  only  4^  feet  above  the  ground.  This  domicile  just 
held  the  ten  men  in  their  sleeping-blankets.  Naturally,  they 
had  to  crawl  rather  than  walk  about,  and,  as  the  shelter 
served  as  a  dining-room  as  well,  the  little  band  had  to  tol- 
erate many  discomforts.  When  the  wind  howled  round  the 
rock,  causing  the  canvas  to  flap  violently  and  threatening 
to  carry  it  away  at  every  turn,  when  the  sea  swarmed  over 
the  rock,  and  Vv^hen  the  heavy  rains  to  which  this  coast  is 


THE  TILLAMOOK  ROCK  LIGHT-STATION      191 

subject  poured  down  pitilessly,  the  men  never  knew  what 
it  was  to  have  dry  clothing  or  bedding.  Cooking  w^as  carried 
on  in  the  open,  and  the  kitchen  arrangements  had  to  be 
shifted  from  time  to  time,  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  so  that  the  fire  was  brought  on  the  lee  side  of  the 
shelter. 

The  workers  were  exposed  to  danger  on  all  sides  inces- 
santly, but  fortunately  in  their  chief,  Ballantyne,  they  had 
one  of  those  men  who  appear  to  be  made  for  such  contin- 
gencies ;  who  was  alert,  ready  for  any  emergency,  nursed 
his  staff  sedulously,  and  whose  buoyant  spirits  dispelled  all 
feelings  of  gloom,  loneliness,  or  homesickness.  The  little 
band  toiled  hard  and  long  through  the  rough  autumnal 
weather,  and  the  arrival  of  stern  winter  did  not  bring  any 
cessation  in  their  labours.  They  fought  the  rock  grimly 
and  ignored  hardship.  Certainly,  they  were  cheered  by  the 
arrival  of  the  boats  with  supplies,  but  occasionally  a  fort- 
night or  more  would  pass  without  a  call  being  made  at  the 
fock,  and  often,  when  a  boat  did  come  up  and  prepare  to 
land  material,  it  had  to  slip  its  anchor  hastily  to  make  a 
frantic  run  for  safety  before  the  rising  swell  and  the  gather- 
ing storm. 

Early  in  January  Nature  concentrated  her  forces,  as  if 
bent  upon  a  supreme  effort  to  shake  the  determination  and 
courage  of  the  little  army  striving  so  valiantly  upon  the  rock. 
On  the  night  of  New  Year's  Day  the  clouds  assumed  an 
ominous  appearance,  and  accordingly  the  workmen  were 
not  surprised  to  meet  a  stormy  and  rainy  reception  when 
they  made  their  way  to  their  duties  the  following  morn- 
ing. The  weather  grew  worse  on  the  third  day,  the  spray 
enveloping  the  rock  and  drenching  the  men,  while  the  wind 
blew  so  fiercely  that  they  could  scarcely  keep  their  feet. 
During  the  next  two  days  it  increased  in  force,  while  the 
sea  grew  angrier.  On  the  6th  the  elements  were  raging  in 
torment,  and  in  the  afternoon  Ballantyne,  taking  stock  of 
the  meteorological  signs,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
party  "  were  in  for  it."  A  hurricane,  or  possibly  a  tornado, 
was  looming.     The  tools  were  being  swung  with  infinite 


192  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

difficulty,  when  suddenly  came  the  signal  "Stop  work!" 
Ballantyne  urged  them  to  set  to  at  once  to  lash  everything 
securely.  At  six  o'clock  in  the  evening  the  hurricane  burst, 
and  the  workmen  witnessed  a  sight  such  as  they  had  never 
seen  before.  The  whole  coast  was  in  the  grip  of  a  tornado, 
of  which  the  Tillamook  Rock  was  the  vortex,  whereon  the 
elements  concentrated  their  destructive  forces.  The  huge 
rollers  assumed  an  uglier  appearance  than  ever ;  the  broken 
water  rushed  up  the  steep  sides  into  the  air,  where  it  was 
caught  by  the  whirling  wind  and  dashed  on  the  tiny  camp. 
It  was  impossible  to  escape  that  savage  attack,  as  it  was 
driven  home  from  all  sides  simultaneously.  The  men  took 
to  their  permanent  quarters  in  silence  and  very  gloomy. 
By  midnight  the  roof  was  being  peppered  with  huge  masses 
of  rock,  which,  detached  by  the  waves,  were  caught  up 
and  thrown  clean  over  the  rock.  Ballantyne  urged  the 
men  to  stay  in  their  bunks,  to  keep  up  their  spirits,  and  to 
seek  a  little  rest. 

But  sleep  was  impossible.  The  quarrymen  were  scared 
out  of  their  wits,  and  there  was  every  cause  for  their  dismay. 
It  seemed  as  if  the  very  rock  itself  must  succumb  to  the 
savage  onslaught.  The  din  was  deafening ;  the  rock  shivered 
and  trembled  as  the  breakers  hurled  themselves  upon  it. 

It  had  just  turned  two.  Suddenly  one  and  all  sat  up  in 
terror.  There  was  a  fearful  crash — a  rending  and  splitting, 
which  was  heard  plainly  above  the  weird  howling  of  the 
hurricane.  The  men  tumbled  out  of  their  bunks  panic- 
stricken,  and  were  about  to  stampede  from  their  shelter  to 
seek  refuge  upon  a  higher  ledge.  But  Ballantyne' s  pluck 
asserted  itself.  He,  too,  had  been  scared  by  the  awful  noise, 
but  he  collected  his  scattered  wits  more  quickly  than  did  his 
comrades.  He  grasped  the  situation,  and  with  iron  nerve 
commanded  all  the  men  to  stick  tightly  where  they  were. 
An  ugly  rush  seemed  imminent,  but  he  stood  with  his  back 
to  the  door,  and  in  plain  English  dared  the  men  to  leave 
their  cover.  Any  man  who  attempted  to  fight  his  way  to 
the  upper  refuge  would  be  swept  overboard  by  the  wind 
and  sea. 


4V~ 


i;    .s  ° 

■n      ^     . 

I      It 


¥       ^     : 


U    5 


a     2 


THE  TILLAMOOK  ROCK  LIGHT-STATION      193 

The  quarrymen  Were  not  cowards,  and  Ballantyne's 
action  steadied  them.  Then  the  foreman  announced  his 
intention  to  go  out  to  see  what  had  happened.  He  grabbed 
a  storm-lantern  and  opened  the  door.  Instantly  he  was 
hurled  back  by  the  wind  and  sea,  which  appeared  to  be 
submerging  the  rock.  For  two  hours  he  stood  waiting  an 
opportunity  to  slip  out  against  the  hurricane.  At  last  he 
succeeded,  and  in  the  intense  darkness  endeavoured  to  grope 
his  way  over  the  rock.  He  had  been  gone  only  a  few 
minutes  when  he  staggered  back,  battered,  shaken,  and 
almost  exhausted.  He  could  not  make  headway  against  the 
gale.  So  the  men  sat  down  and  silently  waited  the  approach 
of  dawn.  Then  they  found  that  the  rushing  waves  had  fallen 
upon  the  building  in  which  all  their  supplies  were  stored, 
had  smashed  it  to  atoms,  and  had  destroyed  and  carried 
away  nearly  all  the  provisions,  the  freshwater  tank,  and 
other  articles,  although  the  requisites  for  work  were  left 
untouched.  It  was  the  break-up  of  this  storehouse  which 
had  woke  them  from  their  slumbers  and  had  provoked  the 
panic. 

For  ten  days  the  gale  raged,  being  more  furious  on  some 
days  than  others.  When  it  decreased  in  fury  the  men  were 
able  to  settle  to  their  work  for  an  hour  or  two,  but  progress 
was  painfully  slow  ;  on  other  days  not  a  tool  could  be  picked 
up.  On  the  i8th  the  revenue  cutter  came  out  from  Astoria 
to  ascertain  how  the  men  had  weathered  the  tornado,  and 
the  signal  for  coal  and  provisions  was  answered  immediately 
by  the  lowering  of  a  surf -boat.  The  sailors  had  a  stiff  pull 
to  reach  the  rock,  found  that  the  men  still  had  a  scanty 
supply  of  hard  bread,  coffee,  and  bacon — this  was  all — and, 
taking  off  the  letters,  promised  to  send  supplies  imme- 
diately. The  construction  ship  also  came  up ;  the  captain 
sent  ashore  all  the  provisions  he  could  spare,  and  undertook 
to  return  at  once  with  a  full  supply.  But  another  ten  days 
passed  before  the  sea  went  down  enough  to  permit  these  to 
be  landed,  together  with  five  more  men. 

Nature  appeared  to  capitulate  after  this  terrible  assault, 
and  work  proceeded  rapidly.     The  crest  of  the  rock  was 

13 


194  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

removed  and  levelled  off,  to  form  an  excellent  platform  for 
the  reception  of  the  beacon  and  other  buildings.  An  in- 
clined tramway  was  excavated  out  of  the  rock-face,  com- 
municating with  the  landing-stage,  to  facilitate  the  haulage 
of  the  light-keepers'  necessities,  and  then  the  arrangements 
for  the  completion  of  the  building  were  hurried  forward. 

When  the  public  saw  that  the  work  was  being  accom- 
plished without  loss  to  life  or  limb,  and  that  the  plucky  little 
party  of  toilers  weathered  the  gales,  an  intense  interest  was 
manifested  in  the  undertaking.  The  foreman  was  pro- 
vided with  an  international  code  of  signals,  and  passing 
vessels,  as  an  act  of  courtesy  and  in  recognition  of  the 
work  that  was  being  done  to  further  their  safety,  always 
stood  towards  the  rock  to  render  assistance  in  case  it  was 
required.  The  workmen  appreciated  this  feeling,  and  on 
two  occasions,  during  dense  fog,  intimated  to  captains  who 
had  lost  their  way,  and  were  groping  blindly  round  the 
rock,  that  they  were  venturing  into  dangerous  waters.  The 
warning  was  primitive  but  effective.  It  comprised  the 
explosion  of  giant-powder  cartridges  over  the  sea  in  the 
direction  whence  the  ships'  sirens  sounded.  In  both  in- 
stances the  navigators  heard  the  signals  in  the  nick  of  time, 
and  were  able  to  steer  clear. 

The  lighthouse  itself  comprises  a  group  of  buildings  for 
the  keepers,  from  which  rises  a  square  tower  48  feet  in  height, 
bringing  the  light  132  feet  above  mean  high-water.  The 
dwelling  is  built  of  stone,  measures  48  feet  by  45  feet,  and  is 
one  story  in  height.  In  addition  there  is  an  extension  for 
housing  the  powerful  siren  and  its  machinery.  The  build- 
ing contains  adequate  living-quarters,  together  with  storage 
rooms  and  a  kitchen.  As  this  light  is  particularly  lonely, 
four  keepers  are  stationed  on  the  rock,  and  their  rooms  each 
have  a  clear  length  of  12  feet  by  10  feet  wide.  Also,  as  the 
rock  is  so  difficult  to  approach,  and  relief  may  suffer  extreme 
delay  from  adverse  weather,  sufficient  provisions  are  stored 
to  insure  full  rations  for  six  months. 

The  light  is  of  the  first  order,  of  160,000  candle-power, 
and  is  visible  at  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles  in  clear  weather. 


THE  TILLAMOOK  ROCK  LIGHT-STATION      195 

It  is  a  brilliant  white  flashing  beam,  occurring  once  every 
five  seconds,  the  flash  being  of  two  seconds,  followed  by  an 
eclipse  of  three  seconds.  The  fog-siren  is  likewise  of  the 
first  order,  driven  by  steam-engines.  This  plant  is  in 
duplicate,  and  the  signal  is  given  every  forty-five  seconds, 
the  blast  being  of  five  seconds,  followed  by  silence  for  forty 
seconds. 

The  conquest  of  the  Tillamook  Rock  has  been  one  of  the 
most  difficult  tasks  that  the  United  States  Lighthouse  Board 
ever  has  accomplished.  The  little  band  of  quarrymen  who 
braved  danger,  hardship,  and  privation,  effected  occupation 
of  the  rock  on  October  21,  1879,  and  the  light  was  exhibited 
for  the  first  time  on  January  21,  1881,  the  total  time  occu- 
pied in  the  task  being  575  days.  It  has  robbed  the  dreaded 
Oregon  coast  of  one  of  its  worst  perils,  and  the  money  which 
was  devoted  to  the  provision  of  this  stalwart  guardian — 
;;^24,698,  or  $123,493 — was  indeed  expended  to  good  purpose. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  COAST  LIGHTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Few  nations  have  such  a  varied  coastHne  to  guard  as  the 
United  States.  On  the  Atlantic  seaboard  the  northern 
shore  is  a  shaggy  bold  rampart  of  lofty  cliff,  hard  and  piti- 
less. Farther  south  the  rock  gradually  gives  way  to  sandy 
dunes,  which  the  hungry  sea  is  continually  gnawing  away 
here  and  piling  up  somewhere  else.  Then,  as  the  tropics 
are  entered,  the  sand  in  turn  gives  way  to  coral  reefs,  every 
whit  as  formidable  as  rock  and  as  treacherous  as  sand, 
where  the  hurricane  reigns  supreme  and  makes  its  presence 
felt  only  too  frequently.  Across  the  continent  a  similar 
variation,  though  not  perhaps  so  intense,  is  observable  on 
the  Pacific  side.  The  coast  range  runs  parallel  with  the 
shore,  and  consequently  cliff  and  precipice  are  common, 
owing  to  the  lateral  spurs  of  the  range  coming  to  an  abrupt 
termination  where  land  and  water  meet. 

The  result  is  that  no  one  type  of  beacon  is  possible  of 
adoption  as  a  standard  for  the  whole  coastline.  The  class 
of  structure  has  to  be  modified  to  meet  local  conditions, 
but  the  battle  between  destruction  and  preservation  is  none 
the  less  bitter  and  continuous.  When  ships  began  to  trade 
with  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United  States,  the  erection 
of  warning  lights  became  imperative.  This  duty  was  ful- 
filled in  the  early  days  by  local  enterprise,  and  the  first 
lighthouse  on  the  continent  was  built  on  Little  Brewster 
Island,  at  the  entrance  to  Boston  Harbour.  It  was  com- 
pleted about  1716,  was  a  conical  masonry  tower,  and  its  cost, 
which  is  interesting  as  being  set  out  to  the  uttermost  farthing 
— £2,285  17s.  8-ld.  —  betrays  the  scrupulous  commercial 
integrity  of  the  first  financiers  of  the  United  States.  The 
light  was  maintained  by  the  levy  of  a  due  of  one  penny  per 

196 


THE  COAST  LIGHTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    197 

ton  on  all  incoming  and  outgoing  vessels,  except  those 
engaged  in  coastal  traffic,  and  was  collected  by  the  same 
authority  which  subsequently  got  into  trouble  in  the  en- 
deavour to  collect  the  tax  on  tea.  This  pioneer  light  is  still 
in  service,  although  in  1783  it  was  rebuilt.  The  light,  of  the 
second  order,  is  102  feet  above  mean  high-water,  and  gives 
a  white  flash  every  thirty  seconds,  which  is  visible  from  a 
distance  of  sixteen  miles ;  the  fog-signal  is  a  first-class  siren, 
giving  a  blast  of  five  seconds,  followed  by  silence  for  ten 
seconds,  with  a  succeeding  blast  of  five  seconds  and  silence 
for  forty  seconds. 

The  excellent  example  thus  set  by  the  good  people  of 
Boston  was  followed  by  other  States  and  individual  authori- 
ties along  the  coast.  This  system  of  local  and  arbitrary 
control  was  by  no  means  satisfactory,  so  in  1789  the  Federal 
Government  took  over  the  control  of  the  lighthouse  service, 
and  entrusted  its  safe  -  keeping  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  There  were  only  eight  lights  to  watch  when  the 
cession  was  effected,  but  the  growth  of  the  country  soon 
increased  the  duties  of  the  department.  Accordingly,  a 
decree  was  passed  in  1817  whereby  the  control  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  the  fifth  auditor 
of  the  same  department,  Mr.  Stephen  Pleasanton,  who 
became  known  as  the  General  Superintendent  of  Lights. 
He  assumed  the  new  office  in  1820,  taking  over  fifty-five 
lights,  so  that  during  the  thirty  years  the  aids  to  navigation 
had  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  forty-seven  new  stations  had  been  established. 

The  new  official  held  the  post  for  thirty-two  years,  and 
prosecuted  his  work  so  diligently  and  systematically  that 
by  1852  the  service  had  grown  to  325  lighthouses,  lightships, 
buoys,  and  other  guides.  The  lighthouses  were  maintained 
under  contract,  the  contractor  for  each  light  undertaking 
for  a  fixed  annual  sum  to  keep  his  charge  in  a  perfect  state 
of  repair,  to  supply  all  illuminant,  wicks,  chimneys,  and 
stores,  that  were  required,  as  well  as  making  one  visit  to 
the  lighthouse  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Subsequently  it  be- 
came necessary  to  award  the  contracts  for  terms  of  five  years. 


198  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

As  time  progressed,  and  the  duties  of  the  Superintendent 
became  more  onerous,  certain  individuals  took  exception  to 
the  idea  of  such  an  important  service  being  entrusted  to  the 
charge  of  one  man,  vested  with  wide  discretionary  powers. 
Accordingly,  complaints  were  formulated  liberally,  and  the 
superintendent  became  the  butt  of  venomous  attack.  The 
outcome  of  this  agitation  was  the  formation  of  a  committee, 
two  members  of  which  were  sent  upon  a  mission  of  inspection 
to  Great  Britain  and  France,  the  lighthouse  services  of 
which  were  stated  to  be  far  superior  to  that  of  the  United 
States,  and  more  efficiently  controlled.  The  result  of  this 
investigation  was  the  inauguration  of  an  official  department 
known  as  the  Lighthouse  Board,  constituted  of  capable 
engineers.  In  1852  this  authority  took  over  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  light  service,  which  has  remained  under  its 
control  ever  since.  In  order  to  secure  the  utmost  efficiency, 
the  coasts  were  divided  into  districts,  each  of  which  is  pre- 
sided over  by  an  accomplished  officer  of  the  United  States 
Corps  of  Engineers,  who  is  held  directly  responsible  to  the 
Board  at  Washington  for  the  lights  in  his  area.  So  admir- 
ably was  the  new  authority  constituted  that  it  has  never 
failed  to  give  the  utmost  satisfaction,  and  the  result  is 
that  to-day  the  Lighthouse  Board  of  the  United  States  is 
comparable  with  contemporary  authorities  in  the  Old 
World. 

In  the  early  days  the  majority  of  the  lights  were  placed 
on  the  mainland,  and  as  a  rule  comprised  wooden  towers, 
projecting  from  the  roof  of  the  keepers'  dwelling,  similar 
in  character  to  some  of  the  older  lights  to  be  found  on  the 
coasts  of  Newfoundland  and  New  Brunswick  in  Canada. 
These  buildings  were  cheap  to  construct,  as  they  were 
carried  out  upon  the  timber-frame  principle  ;  but  they  pos- 
sessed many  disadvantages.  The  greatest  objection  arose 
from  the  attachment  of  the  tower  to  the  roof  frames  of 
the  house.  Being  exposed  to  the  full  fury  of  the  tempest, 
the  tower  in  time  would  become  loosened,  and  the  roof 
itself  distorted,  so  that  the  inmates  had  to  suffer  the  incon- 
venience of  water  penetrating  into  their  rooms.     Even  the 


O       i 


a  ^ 


A   CHURCH    AS   A   LIGHTHOUSE. 

A  fixed  white  light,  thrown  from  the  tower  of  St.  Philips  Church,  and  visible  for  i8  miles,  forms 
the  rear  light  of  the  main  channel  range  in  Charleston  Harbour,  South  Carolina. 


THE  COAST  LIGHTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES     199 

few  masonry  towers  which  were  erected  were  of  the  most 
primitive  description,  and  soon  fell  victims  to  the  ravages 
of  the  weather. 

Accordingly,  when  the  lighthouse  administration  was 
placed  upon  an  efficient  footing,  the  first  task  was  the  com- 
plete overhaul,  and  reconstruction  where  necessary,  of 
many  of  the  existing  lights.  Of  the  eight  beacons  which 
were  taken  over  by  the  Federal  Government  in  1789,  six 
have  been  rebuilt.  The  only  two  exceptions  are  the  Sandy 
Hook  light  —  a  stone  tower  88  feet  high  —  and  Cape 
Henlopen,  at  the  entrance  to  Delaware  Bay,  both  of  which 
were  built  in  1764.  Naturally,  their  illuminating  apparatus 
has  been  remodelled  from  time  to  time,  in  accordance  with 
the  advances  in  this  field  of  lighthouse  engineering,  but 
that  is  the  only  change  which  has  been  effected. 

One  lighthouse  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States 
•esses  a  pathetic  and  romantic  interest.  It  indicates 
the  treacherous  shores  around  Cape  Henry,  and  mounts 
sentinel  on  the  headland  at  the  southerly  side  of  the  entrance 
to  Chesapeake  Bay,  Virginia.  The  stranger  on  the  passing 
ship,  as  he  scans  the  dreary  bench  of  sand  rising  from  the 
water's  edge  at  this  point,  has  his  attention  arrested  by 
two  gaunt  towers.  The  foremost  is  almost  lapped  by  the 
water  ;  the  other  is  some  distance  to  the  rear,  and  upon  a 
higher  level.  "  Two  ligljts,  and  for  what  ?"  is  a  natural 
exclamation.  But  only  one  tower — that  nearer  the  waves 
— throws  its  glare  by  night.  Its  companion  behind  has 
passed  its  cycle  of  utility  long  since,  but  it  has  not  been  de- 
molished because  of  its  unique  history.  It  was  built  in 
1789  with  bricks  and  stones  brought  from  England.  In 
shape  it  is  a  tapering  octagonal  cone,  and  when  first  erected 
the  waves  almost  washed  its  base.  But  the  sea,  which 
eats  away  the  rock  and  soft  soil  at  some  parts,  casts  this 
debris  ashore  here,  so  that  Cape  Henry  is  slowly  but  surely 
thrusting  its  dismal  tongue  of  sand  farther  and  farther  into 
the  Atlantic.  The  old  tower  fulfilled  faithful  service  until 
the  seventies,  when,  being  considered  too  far  from  the 
water,  it  was  superseded  by  the  shaft  rising  from  the  sand- 


200  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

dunes  below.  After  a  century's  service  the  old  light  was 
extinguished,  to  permit  the  fixed  white  light  of  the  first 
order  in  the  new  tower  to  take  its  place. 

The  new  building,  completed  in  1881,  is  likewise  octagonal 
in  section,  gradually  tapering  from  the  base  to  the  lantern 
gallery.  It  is  built  upon  what  is  described  as  the  "  double- 
shell  principle,"  there  being  two  iron  cylinders,  one  within 
the  other.  It  is  152  feet  in  height,  and  the  powerful  white 
beam  has  a  range  of  twenty  miles,  while  a  red  beam  is  cast 
from  one  side  to  mark  a  dangerous  shoal.  As  a  powerful 
flashing  white  light  of  a  similar  character  is  shed  from  a 
tower  on  Cape  Charles  opposite,  the  mariner  has  a  well- 
illumined  entrance  into  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Ice  was  one  of  the  great  difficulties  against  which  the 
American  lighthouse  builders  had  to  contend,  and  they 
laboured  valiantly  to  mitigate  this  evil.  It  caused  more 
damage  to  their  works  than  wind  and  wave  of  the  most 
terrifying  violence.  The  upper  reaches  of  the  great  rivers 
are  encased  with  thick  ice  throughout  the  winter.  When 
the  spring  comes  round,  this  brittle  armour  is  broken  up, 
and,  caught  by  the  current,  is  swept  toward  the  ocean,  the 
floes  jostling  and  crashing  among  one  another.  When  the 
slightest  obstruction  is  offered  to  their  free  movement,  the 
pieces  mount  one  another,  forming  large  hummocks,  and 
the  pressure  thus  imposed  is  terrific.  The  "ice-shove," 
when  it  assumes  large  proportions,  is  quite  capable  of 
wreaking  widespread  damage. 

When  the  screw-pile  lighthouses  came  into  vogue,  this 
danger  was  advanced  as  one  of  the  greatest  objections  to 
the  adoption  of  this  idea.  It  was  pointed  out  that  the  ice 
would  pack  around  the  slender  legs,  and  either  snap  them, 
or  would  bring  about  such  severe  distortion  as  to  imperil 
the  safety  of  the  superstructure.  When  Major  Hartman 
Bache  undertook  the  erection  of  the  Brandywine  Shoal 
light  in  Delaware  Bay,  he  determined  to  frustrate  the 
effects  of  this  peril.  The  light,  being  eight  miles  from  the 
ocean,  was  right  in  the  path  of  the  ice-shoves  of  the  Potomac, 
so  the  nine  iron  legs  upon  which  the  beacon  is  supported — 


THE  COAST  LIGHTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    201 

eight  in  a  circle  and  one  central — are  protected  by  what  is 
known  as  an  "ice-breaker."  This  is  a  pier  of  thirty  iron 
piles,  which  likewise  are  screwed  into  the  sea-bed.  Each 
pile  is  23  feet  long  by  5  inches  in  diameter,  and  they  are 
connected  at  their  heads,  and  at  a  point  just  above  low- 
water,  by  what  are  known  as  "  spider-web  braces."  The 
result  is  that,  when  a  shock  is  inflicted  upon  one  pile,  it  is 
communicated  throughout  the  entire  breaker.  This  system 
has  proved  entirely  successful,  and  has  protected  the  light- 
house within  completely.  The  main  building,  although 
subjected  to  heavy  attacks  by  the  piled  ice,  has  never  been 
damaged  thereby,  although  subsequently  it  became  neces- 
sary to  strengthen  the  ice-breaker,  because  the  onslaughts 
of  several  winters  had  left  their  mark. 

Off  the  coast  of  Florida,  and  in  the  waters  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  this  type  of  lighthouse  is  very  strongly  in  evidence, 
as  it  was  found  to  be  the  most  suitable  for  the  coral  sea- 
bed. The  most  notable  structure  of  this  class  is  the  Fowey 
Rocks  light,  which  rises,  a  flame-crowned  skeleton,  from  the 
extreme  northern  point  of  the  Florida  reefs.  It  is  in  an  ex- 
posed position,  where  inclement  weather  is  often  experi- 
enced. At  this  point  there  is  not  more  than  3  feet  of 
water,  and  the  spot  is  as  bad  as  a  mariner  could  wish  to 
avoid,  for  no  ship  could  hope  to  escape  destruction  once  it 
became  entangled  in  these  submerged  toils. 

The  building  of  this  light  presented  many  perplexing  diffi- 
culties, the  greatest  of  which  was  offered  by  the  weather. 
The  structure  is  an  octagonal  pyramid,  with  the  keepers' 
quarters  on  a  lower  deck,  communication  with  the  lantern 
being  afforded  by  a  winding  staircase  encircling  a  vertical 
cylinder.  The  light  is  iio|  feet  above  high-water,  of  the 
fixed  type,  with  red  sectors  guarding  dangerous  shoals  in 
the  vicinity,  while  the  white  beams  can  be  picked  up  some 
eleven  miles  away. 

The  integral  parts  of  this  building  were  prepared  by  three 
different  contractors,  were  fitted  together,  and  the  building 
set  up  temporarily,  on  the  mainland,  so  as  to  facilitate 
erection  at  the  site.     The  work  was  started  in  1876,  the 


202  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

first  move  being  the  provision  of  a  platform  about  80  feet 
square  and  12  feet  above  low-water,  from  which  to  conduct 
operations.  The  lower  piles  were  driven  about  10  feet 
into  the  live  coral  reef.  Extreme  care  was  observed  during 
this  operation,  the  pile  after  every  stroke  of  the  driver 
being  tested  with  a  plumb-line,  to  make  sure  that  it  was 
being  sent  home  absolutely  vertically.  If  it  diverged,  how- 
ever slightly,  from  the  perpendicular,  the  error  was  corrected 
immediately.  When  the  piles  had  been  driven  to  the 
requisite  depth,  the  tops  were  levelled  to  the  height  of  the 
most  deeply  driven  pile  ;  then  the  horizontal  members  were 
placed  in  position,  followed  by  the  diagonal  bracing. 

This  task  occupied  some  two  months,  and  then  a  spell  of 
bad  weather  broke  over  the  coast,  interspersed  with  brief 
intervals  of  smooth  seas  and  calms.  As  the  land  depot  was 
four  miles  away,  this  involved  frequent  journeys  to  and  fro 
for  the  workmen,  who  had  to  be  brought  off  the  work  upon 
the  slightest  sign  of  rough  weather.  To  eliminate  the 
interruptions  arising  from  this  procedure,  tents  were  de- 
spatched to  the  site  and  pitched  on  the  wooden  platform, 
so  that  the  men  might  reside  there.  At  times  their  situa- 
tion was  alarming  ;  the  heavy  seas  rushed  and  tumbled 
among  the  piles  beneath  the  crazy  perch,  and  the  men  were 
always  on  tenterhooks  lest  a  hurricane,  such  as  is  experienced 
often  in  this  region,  should  bear  down  upon  them  and  carry 
the  whole  colony  away.  When  work  was  in  progress,  they 
did  not  realize  their  lonely,  perilous  position  so  much,  since 
their  minds  were  otherwise  occupied  ;  but  it  was  the  en- 
forced periods  of  idleness,  often  lasting  several  days  on  end, 
which  made  them  grow  despondent,  as  they  were  virtually 
imprisoned,  and  there  was  very  little  space  in  which  to 
obtain  exercise.  The  material  was  brought  out  in  lighters 
towed  by  a  steam-launch,  on  which  steam  was  kept  up  day 
and  night,  because  the  material  had  to  be  sent  out  at  any 
moment  when  the  conditions  were  favourable.  Again,  this 
"  standing  by  "  was  imperative,  in  case  a  sudden  call  for 
assistance  should  be  given  by  the  little  isolated  community 
when  faced  with  disaster  during  a  storm.     When  the  men 


POINT    PIXOS    LIGHT   STATION,    CALIFORNIA. 
This  mariners'  friend  has  been  tended  by  a  woman  for  ihe  past  30  years. 


THE  COAST  LIGHTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    203 

got  the  keepers'  quarters  completed,  their  minds  became 
easier,  as  they  were  now  in  possession  of  a  more  stable 
camp.  The  superstructure  advanced  at  a  rapid  rate,  and 
the  light  was  shown  for  the  first  time  on  June  15,  1878. 

Toil  of  a  different  character  was  associated  with  the 
building  of  the  Race  Rock  lighthouse,  eight  miles  from 
New  London,  Connecticut.  This  peril  is  a  submerged  ledge 
off  Fisher's  Island  Sound,  and  is  of  formidable  magni- 
tude, since  the  ledge  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  race,  where  the 
waters,  according  to  the  tide,  sweep  along  with  great 
velocity  and  force,  while  in  heavy  weather  the  waves  get 
up  high  and  thunder  with  awful  power.  The  main  ledge 
bristles  with  ugly  sharp  spurs,  some  of  which  rise  above 
the  main  cluster,  known  as  Race  Rock,  which  is  about 
3  feet  below  mean  low-water.  The  situation  of  this  lurking 
danger  called  for  the  erection  of  an  efficient  beacon,  though 
not  demanding  a  light  of  the  calibre  of  Minot's  Ledge, 
because  even  in  rough  weather  the  water  does  not  mount 
in  the  form  of  thick  curtains  of  spray.  A  smaller  and 
different  type  of  light,  therefore,  was  considered  to  be 
adequate  for  the  purpose. 

Even  then,  however,  erection  was  not  an  easy  matter  by 
any  means.  The  velocity  of  the  water  and  the  submerged 
character  of  the  reef  demanded  the  aid  of  divers  to  prepare 
the  ledge-face  and  to  complete  the  foundations.  The  rock 
was  levelled  as  much  as  possible  by  the  aid  of  small  broken 
stone  and  riprap.  On  this  a  heavy  circular  stepped  plinth 
of  solid  mass-concrete  was  laid.  This  foundation  is  9  feet 
in  thickness,  and  is  disposed  in  four  concentric  layers,  the 
lowermost  of  which  is  60  feet  in  diameter  by  3  feet  in  thick- 
ness. The  concrete  was  laid  in  huge  hoops  of  iron,  of  the 
desired  height  and  diameter  for  the  respective  layers,  to 
prevent  the  mass  from  spreading.  When  this  task  was  com- 
pleted, there  was  a  level  platform,  as  solid  as  the  rock 
itself,  and  projecting  8  inches  above  mean  low-water.  On 
this  a  conical  stone  pier  was  built  to  a  height  of  30  feet,  by 
57  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base.  The  top  was  crowned  with 
a  projecting  coping  55  feet  in  diameter.     The  outer  face 


204  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

of  this  pier  is  composed  of  massive  blocks  of  stone  backed 
with  concrete  ;  while  in  its  heart  are  the  spaces  for  cisterns 
and  cellars.  From  one  side  of  this  pier  stretches  a  short 
jetty,  to  form  a  landing-place. 

The  lighthouse  comprises  a  granite  dwelling  of  two  floors 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  keepers,  from  the  centre  of 
the  front  of  which  rises  a  granite  tower,  square  at  the  base, 
but  round  at  the  top,  to  carry  the  lantern,  the  light  of  which, 
of  the  fourth  order,  is  67  feet  above  mean  high-water. 
The  warning  is  an  alternate  flash  of  red  and  white,  with  a 
ten  seconds'  dark  interval.  For  the  protection  of  the  base 
of  the  pier,  the  ledge  on  all  sides  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer 
of  boulders.  The  work  was  commenced  in  1872,  but, 
owing  to  its  difficult  character,  occupied  six  years.  The 
Race  Rock  lost  its  terrors  for  all  time  when  the  beam  flashed 
out  on  the  night  of  New  Year's  Day,  1879. 

On  the  Pacific  seaboard,  while  the  American  lighthouse 
engineers  have  not  been  so  active  in  regard  to  engineering 
work  of  an  impressive  nature,  owing  to  the  more  slender 
proportions  of  the  maritime  traffic,  they  have  accomplished 
some  notable  triumphs.  The  Tillamook  Rock  light,  de- 
scribed in  the  previous  chapter,  is  the  most  important,  and 
is  to  the  Pacific  seaboard  of  the  country  what  the  Minot's 
Ledge  light  is  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  majority  of  the 
lights  on  the  Pacific  are  stationed  on  the  mainland,  or  con- 
tiguous thereto.  These  beacons  are  of  more  modern  con- 
struction than  those  on  the  Atlantic  shore,  and  in  some  in- 
stances are  very  powerful.  Pride  of  place  in  this  respect 
is  shared  between  Point  Arena  and  Cape  Mendocino.  The 
former,  perched  on  the  cliff-shore  of  California,  has  a  flashing 
group  of  two  flashes  of  f  second  in  five  seconds,  with  eclipses 
of  i|-  and  4|-  seconds  respectively,  thrown  by  its  light  of 
1,000,000  candle-power  over  the  water  for  a  radius  of 
eighteen  miles  from  a  height  of  155  feet.  Cape  Mendocino 
light,  on  the  same  coastline,  has  the  further  distinction  of 
being  the  most  elevated  light  on  the  United  States  Pacific 
coast,  the  340,000  candle-power  beam  being  thrown  for 
ten  seconds  once  every  thirty  seconds  from  an  elevation  of 


THE   FARALLOX    ROCK   AXD    LIGHT. 
The  light  of  110,000  candle-power  is  placed  on  the  highest  peak  of  the  rock,  358  feet  above  the  sea. 


THE    FARALLON    LIGHTHOUSE    OFF   S.AN    FRANCISCO. 

Owing  to  the  height  of  the  rock,  a  tower  29  feet  high  was  adequate  to  carry  the  lantern 
and  its  equipment. 


K    .t: 


THE  COAST  LIGHTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    205 

422  feet.  Although  the  tower  itself  is  only  20  feet  in  height, 
the  cliff  sheers  up  for  402  feet.  Consequently  the  flash  may 
be  detected  from  twenty-eight  miles  out  to  sea  in  clear 
weather. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Point  Cabrillo  light,  a  few  miles 
south,  whose  flashing  ray  is  of  650,000  candle-power,  is  picked 
up  from  a  distance  of  only  fourteen  miles,  because  the  light 
is  but  84  feet  above  mean  high  -  water.  The  Farallon 
beacon,  comprising  a  tower  29  feet  high  planted  on  the 
highest  point  of  Farallon  Island,  off  San  Francisco,  comes  a 
good  second  in  point  of  elevation,  as  the  110,000  candle- 
power  flash,  occurring  for  ten  seconds  once  in  every  minute, 
is  projected  from  an  altitude  of  358  feet,  and  can  be  dis- 
cerned twenty-six  miles  away.  For  many  years  the  Point 
Reyes  light  held  the  distinction  of  being  the  loftiest  beacon, 
since  its  flash  of  160,000  candle-power  once  every  five 
seconds  is  shed  from  an  elevation  of  294  feet,  but  is  now 
relegated  to  third  place  in  this  respect.  Taken  on  the  whole, 
the  lights  scattered  along  the  rugged,  lonely  Pacific  sea- 
board are  far  more  powerful  than  their  contemporaries 
guarding  busier  shipping  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  country  ; 
but  whereas  the  latter  are  placed  somewhat  close  together, 
the  former  are  spaced  far  apart. 

There  are  some  points  which,  while  being  so  extremely 
perilous  to  the  mariner  as  to  demand  the  provision  of  a 
lighthouse,  yet  cannot  be  guarded  at  present.  The  peculi- 
arity of  their  situations  and  their  physical  characteristics 
completely  defy  the  ingenuity,  skill,  and  resource,  of  the 
engineer.  Cape  Hatteras,  perhaps,  is  the  most  forcible 
illustration  of  this  defeat  of  science  by  Nature.  The  sea- 
bed for  miles  off  this  point  is  littered  with  the  most  treacher- 
ous sandbanks,  beside  which  the  Goodwins  of  Britain 
appear  insignificant.  Every  seafarer  knows  the  Diamond 
ShoalS)  and  gives  them  a  wider  berth  than  any  other  danger 
spot  in  the  seven  seas.  For  some  seven  and  a  half  miles  out 
to  sea  from  the  prominent  headland,  the  Atlantic,  according 
to  its  mood,  bubbles,  boils,  or  rolls  calmly,  over  shoals 
and  serried  rows  of  submerged  banks.     The  currents  are 


2o6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

wild  and  frantic  ;  the  storms  which  rage  off  this  point  are 
difficult  to  equal  in  any  other  part  of  the  world  ;  and  the 
number  of  ships  which  have  gone  to  pieces  or  have  been 
abandoned  to  their  fate  in  these  inhospitable  stretches  of 
sea  is  incalculable 

Time  after  time  the  engineers  have  sought  to  subjugate 
this  danger,  but  without  avail.  The  sea-bed  is  so  soft  and 
absorbing  that  a  firm  foundation  for  a  tower  defies  dis- 
covery. One  brilliant  attempt  was  made  to  sink  a  caisson, 
similar  to  that  employed  for  the  famous  Rothersand  light 
in  the  River  Weser.  The  mammoth  structure  was  built, 
and  with  extreme  difficulty  was  towed  out  to  the  selected 
site.  But  the  seas  roared  against  this  attempt  to  deprive 
them  of  their  prey.  They  bore  down  upon  the  caisson 
and  smashed  it  to  fragments,  causing  the  engineers  to 
retire  from  the  scene  thoroughly  discomfited.  When  a 
huge  mass,  weighing  several  hundred  tons,  could  be  broken 
up  by  the  maddened  seas  so  easily,  of  what  avail  were  the 
knowledge  and  effort  of  man  ?  The  Diamond  Shoals  still 
resist  conquest.  The  only  means  of  warning  ships  of  their 
presence  is  a  lightship  moored  well  out  beyond  the  pale  of 
their  sucking  embrace. 

At  the  present  time  the  United  States  Lighthouse  Board 
mounts  guard  over  17,695  miles  of  coastline.  This  aggregate 
embraces,  not  only  the  two  seaboards  of  the  North  American 
continent,  but  sections  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Philippines, 
Alaska,  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  the  American  Samoan 
Islands,  the  total  detailed  coast  or  channel  line  being  no 
less  than  48,881  miles.  In  order  to  guide  the  mariner 
on  his  way  through  waters  over  which  the  Stars  and  Stripes 
wave,  no  less  than  12,150  lights  of  all  descriptions  are  re- 
quired, demanding  the  services  of  an  army  of  5,582  men. and 
women  ;  while  the  cost  of  maintenance  exceeds  £1,200,000, 
or  $6,000,000,  per  annum.  Seeing  that  the  country  levies 
no  tolls  for  services  rendered  in  this  connection,  the  shipping 
community,  and  humanity  in  general,  owe  a  deep  debt  of 
gratitude  to  a  powerful  nation. 

The  United  States  share  with  Great  Britain,  Austria, 


THE  COAST  LIGHTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES    207 

Belgium,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  the  Netherlands,  and  Sweden, 
the  expense  of  maintaining  a  lighthouse  which  is  situate 
on  the  property  of  none  of  them.  This  is  a  kind  of 
no  man's,  and  yet  it  is  every  man's,  light.  The  beacon  is 
not  located  in  an  out-of-the-way  part  of  the  world,  such  as 
the  Arctic  Sea,  as  might  be  supposed,  but  mounts  guard 
over  one  of  the  busiest  marine  thoroughfares  of  the  globe — 
the  western  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean.  This  unique 
light  is  that  of  Cape  Spartel,  on  the  Moroccan  coast.  While 
it  was  built  at  the  expense  of  Morocco,  the  responsibility 
for  its  maintenance  was  assumed  by  the  foregoing  Powers, 
in  accordance  with  the  convention  of  March  12,  1867,  which 
has  remained  in  force  since.  There  is  no  other  light  upon 
the  seven  seas  which  has  so  many  Powers  concerned  in  its 
welfare  and  maintenance. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  LAMP-POSTS  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES  OF  NORTH 
AMERICA 

On  the  North  American  continent  the  efficient  lighting  of 
the  coasts  washed  by  two  salt  oceans  is  only  one,  although 
the  most  important,  concern  of  the  United  States  and 
Canadian  Governments.  In  addition  each  has  a  long 
stretch  of  rugged,  tortuous  shore  hemming  in  those  capacious 
depressions  draining  a  vast  tract  of  country,  and  known 
generally  as  the  Great  Lakes.  These  unsalted  seas  are 
rightly  named,  seeing  that  they  constitute  the  largest  sheets 
of  fresh  water  on  the  inhabited  globe. 

The  responsibility  of  safeguarding  the  navigator  as  he 
makes  his  way  across  these  wastes  is  shared  equally  by 
the  two  countries  which  they  divide,  with  one  exception. 
This  is  Lake  Michigan,  which  lies  entirely  within  the  United 
States.  The  narrow  necks  of  water  which  link  these  lakes 
into  one  long  chain  likewise  are  lighted  by  the  two  nations. 
For  some  years  the  Lower  Detroit  River,  connecting  Lakes 
Erie  and  St.  Clair,  was  maintained  for  the  most  part  by 
the  United  States,  but  the  practice  was  not  satisfactory ; 
so,  as  the  result  of  a  conference  between  the  two  Govern- 
ments, Canada  assumed  charge  of  the  aids  in  certain 
specified  portions  of  the  navigable  channel  lying  entirely 
in  Canadian  waters.  The  result  of  this  new  arrangement 
has  been  the  better  patrolling  of  the  waterway. 

The  water-borne  commerce  on  these  lakes,  although  pos- 
sible for  only  half  the  year,  is  tremendous,  while  naviga- 
tion is  extremely  difficult  and  beset  with  innumerable 
dangers.*     The  different  means  whereby  a  ship  is  handled 

*  For  a  full  description  of  the  marine  traf&c  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
see  "  The  Steamship  Conquest  of  the  World,"  chapter  ix.,  p.  119. 

208 


THE  LAMP-POSTS  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES      209 

and  maintained  on  its  course  upon  the  salt-water  ocean  are 
not  completely  applicable  in  this  case.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  the  boats  are  freighters  and  engaged  in  the  transport 
of  ore,  which,  from  its  metallic  character,  is  apt  to  disturb 
the  compass,  rendering  it  somewhat  unreliable.  Nor  is 
the  lead  of  much  avail  in  thick  weather,  as  the  lake-bed 
varies  suddenly  from  comparative  shallowness  to  great 
depths.  Navigation  on  these  lakes  has  been  likened  to 
coastal  traffic,  only  with  land  on  both  sides  of  the  mariner, 
and  the  intervals  when  the  ship  is  out  of  sight  of  the  shore- 
line are  comparatively  brief.  Accordingly,  the  captain 
picks  his  way  rather  by  the  aid  of  landmarks,  and  the 
vessels  are  fitted  with  a  bowsprit,  to  give  the  master  a 
point  whereby  to  judge  his  direction.  But  landmarks, 
however  conspicuous  and  trustworthy  they  may  be  by  day 
and  in  clear  weather,  are  useless  at  night  and  in  fog,  to  which 
latter  visitation,  by  the  way,  these  waters  are  extremely 
susceptible. 

Steamship  traffic  cannot  be  carried  on  with  financial 
success  by  daylight  and  in  fair  weather  only,  so  it  became 
necessary  to  distribute  beacons  around  the  indented  shores. 
This  procedure  was  rendered  additionally  necessary  owing 
to  the  formidable  character  of  many  of  the  dangers  be- 
setting navigation,  in  the  form  of  shoals,  projecting  ridges, 
and  submerged  reefs,  quite  as  terrifying  to  the  master  of 
a  fresh-water  ship  as  similar  dangers  on  an  ocean-swept 
coast. 

At  the  same  time,  however,  one  would  not  expect  to  find 
examples  of  lighthouse  engineering  comparable  with  the 
great  sea-rock  lights  rearing  above  the  ocean,  such  as  the 
Minot's  Ledge,  Dhu-Heartach,  or  Bishop's  Rock.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  uninitiated  might  conclude  that  buoys  and 
small  lights,  such  as  indicate  the  entrance  to  harbours, 
would  fulfil  requirements.  So  they  would  but  for  two  or 
three  adverse  factors.  These  lakes  are  ravaged  at  times  by 
storms  of  great  violence,  which  burst  with  startling  sudden- 
ness. Fogs  also  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  especially  in 
the  spring  and  autumn,  often  descending  and  lifting  in- 

14 


2IO  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

stantly  like  a  thick  blanket  of  cloud.  But  the  most  impla- 
cable enemy  is  the  ice.  The  engineer  can  design  a  tower 
which  will  withstand  the  most  savage  onslaughts  of  wind 
and  wave  with  comparative  ease,  at,  relatively  speaking, 
little  expense  ;  but  the  ice  introduces  another  factor  which 
scarcely  can  be  calculated.  The  whole  of  these  lakes  are 
frozen  over  during  the  winter  to  such  a  thickness  as  to  defy 
all  efforts  to  cut  a  channel,  becoming,  in  fact,  as  solid  as 
terra  firma. 

In  the  spring  this  armour  cracks  and  breaks  up  like  glass 
shattered  with  a  hammer.  It  then  becomes  the  sport  of 
the  currents,  which  in  many  places  sweep  and  swirl  with 
enormous  force  round  the  headlands  and  spits  projecting 
into  the  lake.  This  action  sets  the  ice  moving  in  stately 
majesty,  but  crushing  everything  that  rears  in  its  way,  or 
piling  and  breaking  against  the  obstruction.  Ice-shoves, 
ice- jams,  and  ice-runs,  are  the  three  forces  against  which 
the  engineer  has  to  contend,  and  at  places  his  efforts  are  so 
puny  as  to  be  useless.  The  ice,  if  it  collects  across  one  of 
the  outlets  so  as  to  form  a  massive  dam  reaching  to  the  lake- 
bed,  immediately  causes  the  level  of  the  lake  to  rise ;  and 
when  at  last  the  barrage  breaks,  then  the  water  is  released 
in  a  mad  rush. 

Lighthouse  building  on  the  Great  Lakes  demands  the 
highest  skill,  incalculable  ingenuity,  and  the  soundest  of 
design  and  workmanship.  Consequently,  some  of  the 
guardian  lights  distributed  around  these  shores,  such  as 
Spectacle  Reef,  the  Rock  of  Ages,  Colchester,  and  Red  Rock 
lighthouses,  are  striking  evidences  of  the  engineer's  handi- 
work. Of  course,  where  the  land  presses  in  on  either  hand, 
transforming  the  waterway  into  a  kind  of  canal,  or  where  the 
shore  is  free  from  submerged  obstructions,  the  type  of  light- 
house on  either  shore  follows  the  wooden  frame  dwelling 
with  a  low  tower,  as  it  is  completely  adequate  for  the 
purpose. 

The  one  erection,  however,  which  commands  the  greatest 
attention  is  the  Spectacle  Reef  light,  which  has  been  called 
the  Eddystone,  or  Minot's  Ledge,  of  the  Lakes.     In  its  way 


By  pertnimoti  of  the  Lighthouse  Literatui  e  Mission. 
A   LIGHTHOUSE   ON   THE    GREAT    LAKES    IN   THE   GRIP   OF   WINTER. 

This  tower  marks  the  Racine  Reef  in  20  feet  of  water  near  the  entrance  to  Racine  Harbour  on 
the  west  coast  of  Lake  Michigan. 


THE  LAMP-POSTS  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES      211 

it  was  quite  as  bold  an  undertaking  as  either  of  these  far- 
famed  works,  and  in  some  respects  was  far  more  difficult 
to  carry  out,  although  the  builder  was  spared  the  capricious- 
ness  and  extreme  restlessness  of  tidal  waters.  Spectacle 
Reef  lighthouse  rears  its  tapering  head  from  a  particularly 
dangerous  reef  in  an  awkward  corner  of  Lake  Huron,  where 
commences  the  Strait  of  Mackinac,  leading  to  Lake  Michi- 
gan. The  spot  is  dangerous,  because  it  is  covered  by 
about  7  feet  of  water  ;  awkward,  because  it  occurs  about 
ten  and  a  half  miles  off  the  nearest  land,  which  is  Bois 
Blanc  Island.  The  reef  in  reality  comprises  two  shoals, 
which  lie  in  such  relation  to  one  another  as  to  suggest  a 
pair  of  spectacles — hence  the  name.  As  it  is  exposed  to 
170  miles  of  open  sea  on  one  side,  when  these  waters  are 
roused  the  rollers  hammer  on  the  reef  v/ith  terrible  violence, 
while  at  times  the  currents  skirl  by  at  a  velocity  of  two  or 
three  miles  per  hour,  and  the  ice  in  its  movement  grinds, 
piles,  and  grates  itself  upon  the  reef  in  impotent  fury. 
When  this  ice  is  forced  forward  with  the  push  exerted  by 
the  currents,  the  pressure  is  tremendous  and  the  force  well- 
nigh  irresistible. 

When  the  lighthouse  was  projected,  it  was  realized  that 
it  would  have  to  be  of  massive  proportions  and  provided 
with  adequate  measures  to  protect  it  from  the  assault  and 
battering  of  the  ice.  The  task  was  undertaken  by  General 
O.  M.  Poe,  who  was  engineer-in-chief  to  General  Sherman 
on  his  historic  march  to  the  sea.  This  engineer  decided  to 
take  the  Minot's  Ledge  monolithic  structure  as  his  model, 
seeing  that  the  latter  had  withstood  the  savage  onslaughts 
of  the  Atlantic.  Fortunately,  the  foundations  were  of  an 
excellent  character,  the  reef  being  formed  of  hard  limestone. 

The  engineer  selected  as  the  site  for  the  tower  a  point 
where  the  ridge  is  submerged  by  11  feet  of  water.  Seeing 
that  the  base  was  to  be  laid  under  water,  obviously  it 
seemed  to  be  an  operation  for  divers  ;  but  General  Poe  pre- 
pared a  superior  means  of  getting  the  subaqueous  founda- 
tions laid.  He  built  a  cofferdam  around  the  site,  and,  as  the 
work  would  have  to  be  protected  from  the  winter  ice,  he 


212  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

built  another  cofferdam,  entirely  for  protective  purposes, 
outside  the  former.  The  nearest  point  on  the  mainland 
where  he  could  establish  a  depot  was  Scammon's  Harbour, 
some  sixteen  miles  away,  and  here  everything  in  connection 
with  the  work  was  prepared  and  shipped  to  the  site  ready 
for  placing  in  position. 

The  protective  work  comprised  a  wooden  pier,  built  up 
of  timbers  12  inches  square,  24  feet  in  height.  This  struc- 
ture was  divided  into  a  series  of  vertical  compartments 
on  all  four  sides,  leaving  a  clear  internal  space  48  feet 
square.  The  outer  compartments  or  pockets  were  filled 
with  stone,  to  secure  solidity  and  stability.  Landing 
facilities  were  provided  on  this  pier,  together  with  quarters 
for  the  men  engaged  in  the  construction  work. 

In  the  inner  space,  containing  48  square  feet  of  still  water, 
the  cofferdam,  in  which  the  subaqueous  work  was  to  be  carried 
out,  was  lowered.  This  structure  was  cylindrical  in  form.  It 
was  built  up  of  staves,  banded  with  heavy  hoops  of  iron, 
so  that  in  reality  it  resembled  a  huge  barrel  36  feet  across. 
It  was  fashioned  at  the  site,  being  built  while  suspended 
directly  over  the  spot  on  which  it  was  to  be  lowered.  When 
the  tub  was  finished,  loosely  twisted  oakum,  i^  inches 
thick,  was  nailed  all  round  the  lower  edge,  while  a  flap  of 
heavy  canvas  was  secured  to  the  outside  bottom  rim  in 
such  a  way  as  to  leave  36  inches  dangling  free.  The  exact 
circular  shape  of  the  cofferdam  was  insured  by  liberal  cross- 
bracing  from  a  central  vertical  post,  which  constituted  the 
axis  of  the  barrel,  corresponding  to  the  vertical  axis  of  the 
tower.  While  this  work  was  in  progress,  the  face  of  the 
rock  was  cleared  of  loose  boulders,  and  then  the  cofferdam 
was  lowered  bodily  with  extreme  care,  so  that  it  descended 
with  unerring  accuracy  perpendicularly  into  the  water,  to 
come  to  rest  over  the  desired  spot.  As  the  surface  of  the 
reef  was  very  uneven,  the  cofferdam  stopped  when  it 
reached  the  highest  projection  under  its  edge.  Then  each 
stave  of  the  barrel  was  driven  downwards  until  it  came  to 
rest  upon  the  sea-bed,  and,  as  the  oakum  rope  was  forced 
down  likewise,  this  served  to  act  as  caulking.     The  outer 


THE  LAMP-POSTS  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES      213 

flap  of  canvas,  when  the  cofferdam  was  driven  right  home, 
spread  out  on  all  sides,  and  lay  upon  the  surface  of  the  reef. 

Pumps  capable  of  discharging  5,000  gallons  per  minute  then 
were  set  to  work,  removing  the  water  from  within  the  coffer- 
dam. The  oakum  rope  seal  prevented  the  water  regaining 
the  internal  space  under  the  bottom  edge  of  the  tub,  while 
the  canvas  assisted  in  securing  absolute  water-tightness, 
because  the  outer  water-pressure  forced  it  into  all  the  nooks 
and  crevices. 

By  these  means  the  workmen  were  given  an  absolutely 
dry  space  in  which  to  carry  out  their  erecting  Work.  The 
face  of  the  reef  was  cleaned  and  levelled  off,  and  the  first 
layer  of  stones  was  laid.  These  were  first  fitted  temporarily 
upon  a  false  platform  on  shore,  so  that  when  they  reached 
the  site  they  could  be  set  at  once  without  finicking.  The 
bottom  layer  is  32  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  tower  is  solid 
to  a  height  of  34  feet  above  the  rock.  The  stones  are  each 
2  feet  in  thickness,  and  are  secured  to  one  another  on  all 
sides  with  wrought-iron  bolts,  24  inches  long  by  2^  inches  in 
diameter  ;  while  the  tower  is  anchored  to  the  rock  by  cement 
and  bolts  3  feet  long,  driven  through  the  bottom  course 
into  the  real  rock  beneath,  entering  the  latter  to  a  depth 
of  21  inches.  Liquid  cement  was  driven  into  the  holes 
so  as  to  fill  up  all  the  remaining  interstices,  and  this  now 
has  become  as  hard  as  the  stone  itself. 

The  exterior  of  the  tower  is  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  and 
at  80  feet  above  the  base  is  18  feet  in  diameter.  The  total 
height  of  the  masonry  is  93  feet,  and  the  focal  plane  is 
brought  gyi  feet  above  the  rock,  or  86|-  feet  above  the  water- 
level.  The  tower  is  provided  with  five  rooms,  each  14  feet 
in  diameter,  while  the  entrance  is  23  feet  above  the  water. 
The  undertaking  was  commenced  in  May,  1870,  and  the 
light  was  shown  first  in  June,  1874.  As  work  had  been 
confined  to  the  summer  months,  and  a  fortnight  every 
spring  was  devoted  to  preparations,  as  well  as  an  equal 
period  in  the  autumn  to  making  all  fast  to  withstand  the 
rigours  of  winter,  the  total  working  period  was  only  some 
twenty  months. 


214  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  protection  against  the  ice  has  proved  its  value  com- 
pletely. The  ice  as  it  moves  becomes  crushed  against  the 
defence,  and  then  has  its  advance  impeded  by  the  shoal 
upon  which  it  grinds  and  packs,  to  form  in  itself  a  barrier 
and  ice-breaker  against  other  approaching  ice-fields.  This 
structure  was  soon  submitted  to  a  stern  test  to  prove  its 
efficacy.  In  the  spring  of  1875,  when  the  keepers  returned 
to  the  lighthouse — the  light,  in  common  with  all  other 
beacons  guarding  the  Great  Lakes,  is  shut  down  during 
the  winter,  when  navigation  is  closed — they  found  the  tower 
unapproachable.  The  ice-shove  had  jammed,  packed,  and 
been  frozen  into  a  solid  berg  to  a  height  of  30  feet,  of  which 
the  tower  itself  formed  the  core.  The  doorway  was  buried 
to  a  depth  of  7  feet,  and  the  keepers  had  to  carve  their  way 
with  pickaxes  to  the  entrance. 

Owing  to  the  success  of  the  design  for  the  Spectacle  Reef 
lighthouse,  which  ranks  as  a  striking  engineering  achieve- 
ment, it  was  adopted  for  the  Stannard's  Rock  tower.  This 
ledge  rises  from  the  water  28  feet  from  shore,  and  the 
plant  and  tackle  which  were  employed  in  connection  with 
the  first -named  structure  were  utilized  in  this  undertaking. 
The  tower  is  191  feet  in  height,  and  the  light  can  be  seen  for 
about  twenty  miles.  During  the  past  two  or  three  years 
the  United  States  Government  has  erected  two  other  noble 
lighthouses  in  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan.  The  first 
warns  all  and  sundry  off  a  rock  having  three  ugly  pinnacles 
projecting  above  the  water,  and  known  as  the  "  Rock  of 
Ages."  This  danger  stands  right  in  the  steamship  tracks 
between  Port  Arthur  and  Duluth,  off  the  western  end  of 
Isle  Roy  ale.  The  engineers  selected  one  of  the  pinnacles 
as  the  base  for  the  tower,  decapitating  the  projection  to 
12  inches  above  mean  low-water,  so  as  to  secure  a  sufficiently 
large  and  level  plinth.  On  this  bed  a  cylindrical  foundation 
pier,  of  massive  proportions  and  strength  so  as  to  with- 
stand the  ice  action,  was  planted,  to  support  a  lofty  tower 
in  reinforced  concrete.  The  building  has  seven  floors,  one 
being  set  aside  for  housing  the  two  twenty -four  horse-power 
oil-engines  which  are  used  to  drive  the  air-compressors  for 


JH^ 


*  By  cou7-tcsy  of  Lieut.-Col.  IV.  P.  Anderson. 

COLCHESTER   REEF   LIGHTHOUSE,    LAKE    ERIE. 

An  isolated  station  maintained  by  the  Canadian  Government.      It  is  a  fixed  light,  visible 
throughout  a  circle  of  i6  miles  radius. 


THE    LATEST   DEVELOPMENT    IX    LIGHTHOUSE    ENGINEERING. 

Building  the  hexagonal  tower  on  Caribou  Island,  Lake   Superior,  upon  the  lines  evolved  by 
Lieut.-Col.  W.  P.  Anderson,  the  chief  engineer  to  the  Canadian  Lighthouse  Department. 


THE  LAMP-POSTS  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES      215 

the  fog-siren.  The  light  is  125  feet  above  water-level,  and 
gives  a  double  flash  at  ten-second  intervals,  which  can  be 
picked  up  twenty-one  miles  away.  This  tower  was  erected 
in  a  very  short  time,  the  work,  commenced  in  May,  1907, 
being  completed,  except  for  the  installation  of  the  perma- 
nent lens,  thirteen  months  later.  The  optical  apparatus 
was  fixed  and  the  light  shown  first  on  September  15,  1910. 

The  second  light  has  been  placed  on  White  Shoal,  at  the 
north  end  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  supersedes  a  lightship 
which  fulfilled  all  requirements  for  many  years.  The  shoal 
is  exceptionally  dangerous,  and  the  crowded  character  of 
the  shipping  demanded  the  installation  of  a  more  powerful 
light  and  fog-signal.  The  structure  is  a  striking  piece  of 
work,  comprising  a  steel  cylindrical  tower,  or  shell,  lined 
on  the  inside  with  brick  and  faced  externally  with  terra- 
cotta— an  unusual  material  for  lighthouse  construction. 
The  superstructure  is  built  upon  a  massive  concrete  pier, 
about  70  feet  square,  rising  20  feet  above  water-level, 
this  being  borne  in  turn  upon  a  heavy  stone-filled  timber 
crib  laid  on  a  block-stone  foundation,  the  whole  being  pro- 
tected thoroughly  with  riprap.  The  lantern  is  of  the 
second  flashing  order,  with  the  focal  plane  125  feet  above 
the  lake-level,  and  the  65,000  candle-power  ray  is  visible 
twenty-five  miles  away.  The  tower  is  fitted  with  a  dupli- 
cate plant  of  twenty-four  horse-power  oil-engines  and  air- 
compressors,  operating  an  eight-inch  whistle  ;  and  there  is 
also  an  electrically-operated  submarine  bell,  the  power  for 
which  is  generated  by  an  independent  oil-engine,  the  bell 
being  operated  from  the  engine-room.  This  station  is 
equipped  also  with  a  compressed-air  water-supply  system 
and  a  motor-boat. 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  prevailing  conditions,  the  pro- 
vision of  adequate  beacons  upon  the  Great  Lakes  is  highly 
expensive.  Up  to  the  year  1883  more  money  had  been 
devoted  to  the  lighting  of  the  shoreline  of  Lake  Michigan 
than  to  the  illumination  of  any  ocean  or  gulf  in  any  other 
State  in  the  country.  The  total  expenditure  up  to  the 
above  year  exceeded  £470,000,  or  $2,350,000.    The  Spec- 


2i6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

tacle  Reef  light  was  considered  cheap  at  ;^75,ooo,  or  $375,000; 
and  the  Stannard  Rock  lighthouse,  owing  to  the  plant  and 
other  facilities  being  available  from  the  foregoing  work,  cost 
£60,000,  or  $300,000.  By  the  time  the  "Rock  of  Ages" 
tower  threw  its  light,  £27,649,  or  $138,245,  had  been  sunk  ; 
and  the  White  Shoals  lighthouse  absorbed  £50,000,  or 
$250,000, 

The  Canadian  Government,  too,  has  completed  some 
notable  works  upon  the  Great  Lakes  during  recent  years. 
In  Lake  Erie,  in  the  fairway  of  passing  traffic,  is  a  ledge 
known  as  Colchester  Reef,  on  the  south-east  edge  of  which 
a  lighthouse,  one  of  the  most  isolated  in  Canadian  waters, 
has  been  placed.  The  circular  stone  pier  is  built  in  14  feet 
of  water,  and  the  lighthouse,  comprising  a  two-story  dwell- 
ing and  tower,  supports  the  beacon  60  feet  above  the  lake. 
The  light  is  a  fixed  white,  of  the  third  dioptric  order,  visible 
throughout  a  circle  of  fourteen  miles  radius. 

At  the  entrance  to  Parry  Sound,  on  a  convenient  site 
offered  by  the  solid  granite  mass  of  Red  Rock,  a  new  light- 
house was  constructed  in  191 1.  This  was  the  third  beacon 
placed  at  this  point,  the  two  previous  lights  dating  from 
1870  and  1881  respectively.  It  is  a  particularly  bad  spot, 
since  the  waters  of  Georgian  Bay  have  a  free  run,  so  that 
the  rock  experiences  the  full  hammering  of  the  sea.  The 
beacon  comprises  a  reinforced  concrete  building,  nearly 
elliptical  in  section,  supported  upon  a  heavy  stone  founda- 
tion, which  is  encased  in  steel,  and  which  is  12  feet  high. 
The  tower  has  a  height  of  57  feet,  bringing  the  occulting 
flash  of  twelve  seconds,  with  an  eclipse  of  four  seconds, 
60  feet  above  the  water.  This  station  is  also  equipped  with 
a  powerful  diaphone.  The  keepers  of  this  light  experience 
exciting  times,  as  in  a  furious  gale,  such  as  the  lakes  only 
can  produce,  the  waves  frequently  crash  over  the  building. 

Another  fine  light  in  the  stretch  of  these  waters  under 
Canadian  jurisdiction  is  found  about  halfway  across  Lake 
Superior,  where  Caribou  Island  thrusts  its  scrub-clothed  hump 
above  the  water,  almost  directly  in  the  path  of  the  vessels 
running    between    Sault    Ste.    Marie    and    Sarnia.      This 


THE  LAMP-POSTS  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES      217 

magnificent  structure,  placed  on  a  small  islet  lying  off  the 
main  island,  is  built  in  ferro-concrete,  in  accordance  with 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Anderson's  latest  ideas,  and  was  opened 
for  service  in  1912.  It  is  of  hexagonal  shape,  with  six 
flying  buttresses,  and  the  focal  plane  is  brought  99  feet  above 
the  water-level,  so  that  the  white  flash  of  half  a  second  may 
be  seen  all  round  from  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles. 

The  steamship  lanes  across  the  Great  Lakes  are  now  well 
lighted.  Canada  alone  maintains  over  460  lights  of  all 
descriptions  throughout  its  waters  between  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  Lake  Ontario  and  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  at 
Port  Arthur.  The  United  States  authorities  watch  over 
694  attended  and  unattended  aids  to  navigation  in  the  same 
seas,  of  which  total  152  are  scattered  around  the  coast- 
line of  Lake  Michigan.  The  mariner  in  these  fresh -water 
oceans,  consequently,  has  a  round  thousand  lights  to  guide 
him  on  his  way,  and  the  number  is  being  steadily  increased 
to  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  traffic,  so  that  these  seas 
may  become  regarded  as  the  safest  and  best  protected  in 
the  world. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  MOST  POWERFUL  ELECTRIC  LIGHTHOUSES  OF 
THE  WORLD 

In  a  previous  chapter  I  have  mentioned  that,  although  oil 
is  the  most  popular  form  of  illuminant  in  lighthouse  engineer- 
ing, electricity  is  maintained  to  be  preferable,  but  labours 
under  one  heavy  disadvantage  which  militates  against  its 
more  general  adoption.  It  is  expensive  to  install  and  to 
maintain.  Under  these  circumstances  the  system  has  been 
restricted  to  lights  of  the  most  important  character,  pref- 
erably landfalls  or  beacons  indicating  the  entrance  to  a 
harbour.  Thus,  we  have  the  Lizard  at  the  entrance  to  the 
English  Channel ;  St.  Catherine's  on  the  Isle  of  Wight ;  the 
Rothersand  at  the  entrance  to  the  Weser  ;  the  Heligoland 
flaring  over  the  island  of  that  name  ;  the  Isle  of  May  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Firth  of  Forth  ;  Cape  Heve  near  Havre  ; 
and  the  Navesink  light  on  the  highlands  of  the  New  Jersey 
coast,  to  guide  the  mariner  into  New  York  harbour. 

The  first  attempt  to  apply  electricity  to  lighthouse 
illumination  was  made  in  the  year  1859,  by  the  Trinity 
Brethren,  on  the  strong  recommendations  of  Professor 
Faraday,  who  was  then  scientific  adviser  to  the  British 
lighthouse  authorities.  The  South  Foreland  light  was 
selected  for  the  experiments,  and  the  magneto-electric 
machine  invented  by  Professor  Holmes,  who  subsequently 
perfected  the  siren,  was  used. 

The  installation  was  built  with  extreme  care,  as  the 
imperative  necessity  of  reliability,  owing  to  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  application,  was  recognized  very  fully.  The 
large  wheels  made  eighty-five  revolutions  per  minute,  and  at 
this  speed  produced  a  very  steady  light.  On  a  clear  night, 
owing  to  the  elevation  of  the  chff  the  light  was  visible  for 

218 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTHOUSES  OF  THE  WORLD     219 

over  twenty-seven  miles,  and  could  be  descried  readily 
from  the  upper  galleries  of  the  lighthouses  on  the  opposite 
French  shore.  In  order  to  determine  the  relative  value 
of  electric  lighting  in  comparison  with  the  other  methods 
of  illumination  then  in  vogue,  another  light  emitted  by  an 
oil-lamp,  with  reflectors  characteristic  of  the  period,  was 
burned  simultaneously  from  a  point  below  the  top  light,  so 
that  passing  mariners  were  able  to  compare  the  two  systems 
of  illumination  under  identical  conditions. 

The  French  lighthouse  authorities  were  not  dilatory  in 
adopting  the  new  idea,  and  electricity  was  installed  in 
the  Cape  Heve  lighthouse  in  1863.  The  light  was  brilliant 
for  those  times,  being  approximately  of  60,000  candle- 
power.  The  French  investigators  then  embarked  upon  an 
elaborate  series  of  experiments,  and  in  1881  an  electric 
light  of  about  1,270,000  candle-power  was  established  at 
the  Planier  lighthouse,  near  Marseilles.  The  investigations 
culminated  in  the  great  achievement  of  M.  Bourdelles, 
who,  while  engineer-in-chief  of  the  Service  des  Phares, 
designed  a  new  electric  installation  for  the  Cape  Heve 
light,  of  25,000,000  candle-power. 

Meantime  British  engineers  had  not  been  idle.  In  1871 
Messrs.  Stevenson,  the  engineers  -  in  -  chief  to  the  Com- 
missioners of  Northern  Lighthouses,  advocated  strongly  the 
establishment  of  an  electric  light  upon  the  Scottish  coast  ; 
but  it  was  not  until  1883  that  the  Board  of  Trade  sanctioned 
the  sum  necessary  to  complete  such  an  enterprise,  and  sug- 
gested that  the  innovation  should  be  made  at  the  Isle  of 
May  lighthouse,  as  being  the  most  important  on  the  East 
Scottish  coast. 

This  is  one  of  the  historic  light-stations  of  Scotland. 
Lying  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  five  miles  off  the  Fifeshire 
shore,  the  islet  obstructs  a  busy  marine  thoroughfare. 
For  276  years  a  light  has  gleamed  from  its  summit,  the 
change  from  the  coal  fire  to  Argand  lamps  with  reflectors 
having  been  made  by  Thomas  Smith,  the  first  engineer  to 
the  Commissioners  of  Northern  Lighthouses,  when  this 
body  assumed  its  control  in  1816.    Twenty  years  later  it 


220  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

was  converted  to  the  dioptric  system,  with  a  first-order  fixed 
light  apparatus  having  a  four- wick  burner.  This  arrange- 
ment was  in  service  for  half  a  century,  when  it  was 
converted  to  electricity  in  conjunction  with  a  dioptric 
condensing  apparatus. 

r  The  electric  installation  was  designed  throughout  by 
Messrs.  Stevenson,  and  it  possesses  many  ingenious  and 
novel  features  to  this  day,  while  it  was  the  pioneer  of 
modern  electric  lighting  systems  as  applied  to  lighthouse 
engineering.  Although  marked  improvements  have  been 
effected  in  electrical  engineering  and  science  since  its  com- 
pletion, it  still  ranks  as  one  of,  if  not  the,  most  powerful 
electric  lighthouses  in  the  world,  i  The  beacon  is  a  promi- 
nent edifice  on  the  summit  of  tli^  island.  The  building  is 
somewhat  pretentious,  rather  resembling  a  battlemented 
castle  than  a  warning  for  the  mariner,  the  optical  apparatus 
being  housed  in  a  square  turret  rising  above  the  main  part  of 
the  building.  When  electric  illumination  was  adopted,  the 
existing  accommodation  for  three  keepers  was  found  in- 
sufficient, while  a  generating-station  was  necessary.  Instead 
of  extending  the  old  building  to  accommodate  the  additional 
facilities,  a  second  station  was  built  at  a  low-lying  point 
near  the  sea-level.  This  contains  the  engine  and  generating 
house,  together  with  quarters  for  three  more  keepers  and 
their  families.  This  decision  was  made  because  at  this 
point,  8io  feet  away  and  175  feet  below  the  lighthouse, 
there  is  a  small  fresh-water  loch  whence  water  is  available 
for  the  boilers  and  condensers,  while  a  marked  saving  in 
the  cost  of  handling  fuel  as  well  as  of  the  haulage  of  the 
building  materials  and  machinery  was  feasible.  The  cur- 
rent is  led  from  the  power-house  to  the  lighthouse  by  means 
of  overhead  copper  conductors. 

Some  difficulty  was  experienced  in  securing  electrical 
apparatus  suited  to  the  searching  exigencies  of  lighthouse 
engineering,  and  the  designers  made  one  stipulation,  which 
at  first  appeared  to  baffie  fulfilment.  This  was  the  placing 
of  the  positive  carbon  below,  instead  of  above,  so  as  to 
enable  the  strongest  light  to  be  thrown  upwards,  to  be  dealt 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTHOUSES  OF  THE  WORLD     221 

with  by  the  upper  part  of  the  dioptric  apparatus,  whereby 
it  could  be  used  more  effectively.  One  firm  struggled  with 
this  problem  for  many  months,  and  then  was  compelled  to 
admit  defeat,  as  time  for  further  experimenting  was  un- 
available, since  the  lighthouse  was  almost  completed. 
Accordingly,  the  designing  engineers  had  to  revise  their 
plans,  and  had  to  acquire  alternate-current  De  Meriten 
machines,  which,  although  more  expensive  and  less  powerful 
than  those  originally  intended,  yet  were,  and  are  still, 
wonderfully  steady  in  working,  while  they  had  previously 
proved  highly  efficient  for  lighthouse  service.  Two  gener- 
ators of  this  description  were  secured,  and  they  consti- 
tuted the  largest  that  had  been  made  up  to  this  period, 
each  plant  weighing  about  4I  tons.  Each  machine 
has  sixty  permanent  magnets,  disposed  in  five  sets  of 
twelve  each,  while  each  magnet  is  made  up  of  eight  steel 
plates.  The  armature  makes  600  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  develops  an  average  current  of  220  amperes. 

The  installation  is  so  designed  that  one-,  two-,  three-,  or 
four-fifths,  or  the  whole,  of  the  current  can  be  sent  from 
each  unit  to  the  distributor  for  transmission  to  the  lantern, 
or  the  two  machines  may  be  coupled  and  the  full  current 
from  both  utilized.  The  current  is  conveyed  to  the  lantern 
through  copper  rods  i  inch  in  diameter,  and  this  was  the 
first  occasion  on  which  such  conductors  were  utilized  for 
lighthouse  work.  There  are  three  lamps  of  a  modified 
Serrin-Berjot  type,  one  being  in  service,  and  the  other  two 
held  in  reserve.  By  means  of  a  by-pass,  or  shunt,  a  large 
percentage  of  the  current  is  sent  direct  to  the  lower  carbon, 
only  a  sufficient  amount  to  regulate  the  carbons  being  sent 
through  the  lamp.  The  carbons  used  are  about  i|-  inches 
in  diameter,  though  two-inch  carbons  can  be  employed  when 
both  machines  are  running,  and  the  rate  of  consumption 
is  i|  inches,  or,  including  waste,  2  inches,  per  hour.  The 
power  of  the  arc  thus  obtained  with  the  current  fed  from 
one  generator  is  between  12,000  and  16,000  candles.  In  the 
event  of  the  electric  installation  breaking  down,  a  three - 
wick  paraffin  oil  lamp  is  kept  in  reserve,  ready  for  instant 


222  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

service,  and  it  can  be  brought  into  use  within  three 
minutes. 

The  dioptric  apparatus,  designed  by  Messrs.  Stevenson, 
and  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Chance  Brothers  and  Co.  of 
Birmingham,  is  of  a  novel  character,  inasmuch  as  the  con- 
densing principle  has  been  carried  to  a  pronounced  degree. 
The  light  characteristic  is  four  brilliant  flashes  in  quick  suc- 
cession every  thirty  seconds.  The  lenticular  apparatus  also 
includes  the  ingenious  idea  advocated  by  Mr.  Thomas  Steven- 
son, an  earlier  engineer-in-chief  to  the  Northern  Commis- 
sioners and  perhaps  the  greatest  authority  on  lighthouse 
optical  engineering,  whereby  the  light  may  be  dipped 
during  a  fog.  Thus,  in  clear  weather  the  strongest  part  of 
the  ray  may  be  directed  to  the  horizon,  while  in  thick 
weather  it  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  a  point,  say,  four  or 
five  miles  away.  The  flashes  are  produced  by  a  revolving 
cage  of  straight  vertical  prisms,  which  enclose  the  fixed-light 
apparatus.  This  cage  makes  one  complete  revolution  every 
minute,  the  rotary  movement  being  secured  through  a  train 
of  wheels  and  a  weight,  which  has  a  fall  of  60  feet  in  a  tube 
extending  vertically  through  the  centre  of  the  tower,  the 
mechanism  being  wound  up  once  an  hour  by  manual  effort. 

The  beam  of  light  obtained  by  the  aid  of  electricity  is 
of  intense  brilliancy  and  penetration.  Its  equivalent  in 
candle-power  is  somewhat  difiicult  to  determine,  because 
the  methods  of  calculation  are  somewhat  arbitrary  and  mis- 
leading. By  their  own  method  of  calculation,  the  engineers 
responsible  for  the  installation  rate  it  at  3,000,000  candle- 
power  with  one  generator  in  use,  and  6,000,000  candle- 
power  when  both  are  going.  This  is  from  300  to  600  times 
as  intense  as  the  oil  light  which  was  superseded.  By  another 
method  of  calculation  the  beam  is  of  26,000,000  candle- 
power,  while  another  principle  of  rating  brings  it  to  upwards 
of  50,000,000  candle-power.  In  clear  weather  the  light  has 
a  range  of  twenty-two  miles,  being  indistinguishable  at  a 
greater  distance,  owing  to  the  curvature  of  the  earth  ;  but 
the  flashes  of  light  illuminating  the  clouds  overhead  may  be 
picked  up  forty  or  fifty  miles  away.     The  total  cost  of 


By  permission  of  Messrs.  Siemens  Bros.  &•  Co.,  Ltd. 

THE    ELECTRIC    SEARCHLIGHTS    OF   THE    HELIGOLAND    LIGHTHOUSE. 

On  the  lower  level  are  three  projectors  spaced  120  degrees  apart.      Above  is  a  fourth  searchlight 
revolving  three  times  as  rapidly  as  those  below. 


"^^s^^^msm- 


"C*"* 


''^*^-!l^'^'V 


7  \  J'i ) )  if>  \ton  of  )/( is;  f.  Siejnens  Bros.  &  Co  ,  Lta. 
THE    HELIGOLAND    LIGHTHOUSE. 
One  of  the  most  powerful  electric  beacons  in  the  world.     Its  maximum  candle-power  is  43,000,000. 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTHOUSES  OF  THE  WORLD     223 

electrifying  the  Isle  of  May  light  was  ;£i5,835,  or  $79,175  ; 
while  the  annual  cost  of  maintenance  is  over  £1,000,  or 
$5,000. 

The  most  famous  English  electric  lighthouse  is  that  of 
St.  Catherine's,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  This  point,  like  the 
Isle  of  May,  has  been  a  beacon  for  centuries.  Its  creation 
for  this  work  even  antedates  its  northern  contemporary, 
because  in  the  fourteenth  century  a  chantry  was  built 
by  a  benevolent  knight  on  the  highest  point  of  St.  Cath- 
erine's Downs,  who  furthermore  provided  an  endowment 
for  a  priest  "  who  should  chant  Masses  and  maintain  a 
burning  light  at  night  for  the  safety  of  mariners."  But 
this  protection  fell  into  desuetude. 

The  station,  however,  was  revived  upon  the  old  site  in 
1785,  but  it  had  to  be  abandoned,  because  it  was  found 
to  be  built  at  too  high  an  elevation.  It  was  so  often  en- 
veloped in  fog  as  to  be  useless,  or  at  least  unreliable,  to 
the  seafarer.  A  new  tower,  accordingly,  was  erected  at  a 
lower  level,  and  brought  into  service  in  1840,  the  warning 
rays  being  thrown  from  a  height  of  134  feet  above  the  water. 
Oil  was  used  with  a  burner  of  six  rings,  the  light  being 
officially  known  as  a  "  fixed  oil  light  of  the  first  class," 
while  the  beam  was  diffused  over  an  arc  of  240  degrees. 
In  the  middle  eighties  the  Brethren  of  Trinity  House  decided 
to  bring  it  up  to  date,  and  selected  electricity  as  the  illu- 
minant,  at  the  same  time  changing  the  light  from  the  fixed 
to  the  revolving  class,  with  a  five-second  flash  once  every 
thirty  seconds. 

The  installation  is  not  widely  dissimilar  from  that  used 
at  the  Isle  of  May.  It  comprises  two  De  Meriten  dynamos 
in  duplicate,  while  the  lamps  are  of  the  modified  Serrin- 
Berjot  type,  using  carbons,  not  of  circular  section,  but  with 
fluted  sides.  This  shape  was  introduced  by  Sir  James 
Douglass,  who  contended  that  the  former  type  did  not 
produce  the  requisite  candle-like  steadiness  of  the  flame  so 
essential  to  lighthouse  illumination.  The  dioptric  apparatus 
was  of  the  sixteen  panel  type,  so  that  the  rays  were  thrown 
out  in  sixteen  brilliantly  white  horizontal  spokes.    To  one 


224  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

approaching  the  lighthouse  at  night-time,  the  effect  in  the 
sky  was  somewhat  curious.  It  recalled  a  huge  and  illumin- 
ated cart  wheel  or  Catherine  wheel,  lying  flat  on  its  side, 
throwing  its  rays  to  all  points  of  the  compass  in  a  steadily 
moving  circle.  This  practice  had  been  borrowed  from  the 
French,  who  went  so  far  as  to  introduce  a  twenty-four  panel 
system,  and,  as  in  France,  the  St.  Catherine's  light,  when 
first  brought  into  service,  was  not  a  complete  success.  The 
French  considered  that,  by  distributing  the  light  through 
as  many  panels  as  possible,  the  question  of  bringing  the 
flashes  into  action  at  short  intervals  would  be  facilitated, 
ignoring  the  fact  that  by  so  doing  the  intensity  of  each  ray 
was  impoverished.  In  other  words,  with  the  twenty-four 
panel  light  each  panel  only  received  and  threw  out  one- 
twenty-fourth  part  of  the  volume  of  light  emitted  by  the 
arc.  Similarly,  in  the  St.  Catherine's  light  only  one- 
sixteenth  part  of  the  light  produced  was  thrown  through 
each  panel.  A  few  years  ago  the  optical  system  was  re- 
placed by  an  apparatus  having  fewer  panels.  The  light 
thrown  from  the  Isle  of  Wight  pharos,  with  its  beam  exceed- 
ing 5,000,000  candle-power,  represents  a  marked  advance 
upon  the  oil  light  which  it  displaced,  and  certainly  it  ranks 
as  the  most  brilliant  light  in  the  English  Channel. 

A  few  years  ago  another  magnificent  light  was  brought 
into  service  in  the  North  Sea  by  the  installation  of  elec- 
tricity in  the  lighthouse  of  Heligoland.  With  characteristic 
Teuton  thoroughness,  the  Germans  discussed  the  question 
of  the  illuminant  for  this  beacon  in  all  its  bearings,  and 
resolved  to  introduce  the  most  powerful  light  possible. 
This  decision  was  influenced  by  the  dangerous  character 
of  the  waters  washing  the  island,  as  it  is  flanked  on  all 
sides  by  highly  perilous  ridges  and  sandbanks,  which 
must  become  accentuated  owing  to  the  heavy  sea-erosion 
that  prevails. 

The  German  authorities  investigated  the  various  electrical 
installations  that  had  been  laid  down  for  lighthouse  work, 
with  a  view  to  discovering  the  most  suitable  system,  the 
advantages  and  defects  of  existing  electric  lights,  and  how 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTHOUSES  OF  THE  WORLD     225 

the  drawbacks  might  be  overcome  most  successfully.  Mean- 
time the  famous  Siemens  firm  discovered  a  means  of 
grinding  glass  mirrors  into  parabolic  form,  and  this  dis- 
covery was  accepted  as  the  solution  to  the  problem. 

In  this  type  of  mirror  the  back  is  silvered.  The  metallic 
polished  surface  is  protected  completely  from  mechanical 
injury  and  from  all  possibility  of  tarnishing.  The  inventors 
claim  that  mirrors  so  prepared  are  able  to  compete  success- 
fully with  lenses  and  totally  reflecting  prisms — in  fact,  it 
was  maintained  that  the  silvered  glass  parabolic  mirror 
possessed  the  advantages  of  greater  reflecting  power  and 
enhanced  accuracy,  with  less  divergence  of  the  beam  of 
light. 

Owing  to  the  perfection  of  the  lenses  and  prisms  system 
of  lighthouse  optics,  the  introduction  of  arc  lights  in  con- 
junction with  parabolic  mirrors  was  received  with  consider- 
able hesitation.  In  order  to  dispel  these  doubts,  the  above- 
mentioned  firm  forthwith  embarked  upon  an  elaborate  series 
of  comparative  tests  at  Nuremberg  to  ascertain  the  relative 
value  of  the  two  systemS;  and  as  a  result  of  these  experi- 
ments they  concluded  that  quite  as  good  an  effect  is  ob- 
tainable with  the  arc  and  parabolic  mirror  as  with  the  best 
examples  of  any  other  method. 

Accordingly,  the  authorities  decided  to  install  the  system 
in  the  Heligoland  lighthouse.  They  stipulated  that  the 
intensity  of  the  beam  of  light  should  be  at  least  30,000,000 
candle-power,  with  a  maximum  current  of  100  amperes. 
The  duration  of  the  flash  was  to  be  one-tenth  of  a  second, 
followed  by  eclipses  of  five  seconds'  duration. 

The  electrical  engineering  firm  entrusted  with  the  con- 
tract fulfilled  these  conditions  by  mounting  three  search- 
lights spaced  120  degrees  apart  upon  a  rotating  platform. 
That  is  to  say,  each  light  is  projected  outwards  from  a  point 
equal  to  a  third  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle.  The  mirror 
diameter  was  settled  at  75  centimetres  (29I-  inches)  and 
the  focal  length  at  250  millimetres  (10  inches),  the  current 
being  taken  at  34  amperes  when  the  table  made  four  revo- 
lutions per  minute. 

15 


226  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

Subsequently  a  fourth  searchlight  was  introduced  into 
the  apparatus,  for  the  purpose  of  practical  experiments  and 
observations  concerning  the  duration  of  the  light-flash. 
This  fourth  unit  was  mounted  above  the  three  searchlights, 
but  in  the  axis  itself.  It  is  so  disposed  that  its  flash  comes 
midway  between  any  of  the  two  below,  and  it  is  arranged 
to  rotate  three  times  as  quickly  as  the  main  group  of  lights. 
Accordingly,  the  duration  of  the  flash  thrown  from  the 
fourth  searchlight  is  only  one-third  of  the  flash  thrown  by 
the  others — that  is,  one-thirtieth  of  a  second.  This  lamp 
is  provided  with  all  the  necessary  mechanism  for  keeping 
it  in  steady  rotation  at  the  increased  speed,  and  for  drawing 
current  from  its  feed-cable. 

Before  the  installation  was  placed  in  the  lighthouse  at 
Heligoland,  it  was  submitted  to  searching  tests  at  the 
Nuremberg  works  of  the  builders.  These  trials  proved  that 
with  a  current  of  only  26  amperes  the  average  intensity 
was  as  high  as  34,000,000  candle-power,  with  a  maximum 
of  nearly  40,000,000  candle-power ;  while  with  34  amperes 
the  average  intensity  rose  to  approximately  40,000,000, 
with  a  maximum  of  nearly  43,000,000  candle-power.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  terms  of  the  contract  were  fulfilled  completely. 

The  searchlights  throw  their  rays  from  a  massive  conical 
tower,  the  focal  plane  of  which  is  272  feet  above  sea-level. 
In  average  weather  the  rays  are  visible  at  a  distance  of 
twenty-three  nautical  miles,  and  under  the  most  advan- 
tageous Weather  conditions  visibility  is  limited  only  by  the 
curvature  of  the  earth,  although  on  a  clear  night  the  light 
is  seen  from  Biisun,  which  is  about  thirty-five  miles  away. 
The  Hehgoland  electric  light  ranks  as  a  remarkable  develop- 
ment in  the  application  of  electricity  to  lighthouse  illumina- 
tion, but  it  never  has  been  duplicated.  The  cost  of  main- 
tenance—  about  ;^i,400,  or  $8,000,  per  annum  —  is  an 
insuperable  handicap. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Hornum  electric  light,  which  is 
the  most  modern  of  its  type  in  Germany,  is  more  economical, 
although  by  no  means  so  powerful.  The  tower  is  of  cast- 
steel,  and  carries  two  electric  lights  ;  while  about  half  a  mile 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTHOUSES  OF  THE  WORLD     227 

distant  is  a  second  tower,  which  throws  a  third  electric 
hght.  In  the  main  tower,  on  the  ground  floor,  is  installed 
the  electric  generating  plant  (in  duplicate),  together  with 
all  accessories,  such  as  switchboards,  etc.  The  floor  above 
is  devoted  to  housing  100  accumulators,  which  are  charged 
during  the  day.  This  task  can  be  completed  by  one  gener- 
ating set  in  about  six  hours.  A  single  charge  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  three  lights  going  for  ten  or  eleven  hours,  and 
the  lights  are  controlled  by  a  simple  throw-over  switch. 
By  this  arrangement  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  the  light 
is  reduced  very  appreciably,  as  only  one  keeper  is  on  duty 
at  a  time,  the  station  being  equipped  with  two  men,  who 
have  proved  adequate  for  the  purpose. 

Above  the  accumulator-room  is  the  storeroom  and  a 
general  workshop,  followed  by  a  bedroom  and  above  that 
the  service-room.  As  only  one  keeper  is  on  duty  at  a 
time,  he  is  provided  with  ample  devices  whereby  he  can 
summon  his  comrade  in  times  of  emergency ;  the  generating 
machinery  is  also  controllable  from  this  floor.  From  the 
service-room  the  lower  light-room  is  entered.  This  is  a 
secondary  or  back  light  in  the  range,  the  front  light  being 
in  the  tower  half  a  mile  away.  Each  of  these  two  light- 
rooms  is  fitted  with  two  150  candle-power  incandescent 
electric  lights,  but  only  one  is  burned  in  each  set  at  a  time  : 
the  second  is  a  reserve.  Should  the  light  in  action  fail  from 
any  cause,  although  the  keeper  is  warned  of  the  occurrence, 
he  does  not  have  to  stir  a  finger  to  bring  the  reserve  light 
into  service.  The  short-circuit  produced  by  the  accident 
to  the  light  automatically  revolves  the  table  upon  which 
the  lamps  are  mounted,  swings  the  reserve  light  into  focus, 
and  then  sets  it  going. 

Above  the  secondary  light  in  the  main  tower  is  the 
principal  beacon,  comprising  a  brilliant  rapidly-flashing 
light,  the  characteristic  of  which  is  groups  of  two  flashes 
alternating  with  four  flashes,  the  cycle  being  completed 
once  in  thirty  seconds.  The  optical  apparatus  has  been 
devised  especially  for  the  "  differential  arc-light,"  as  it  is 
called,  with  a  reflecting  lens  having  a  focal   distance  of 


228  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

250  millimetres  (10  inches),  the  lens  itself  being  1,180  milli- 
metres (approximately  47  inches)  in  diameter.  In  front 
of  the  lens  is  placed  a  disperser,  having  a  diameter  of 
1,200  millimetres  (48  inches)  whereby  the  ray  of  light  is 
dispersed  through  an  arc  of  10^  degrees.  Before  the  dis- 
perser is  the  means  for  producing  the  characteristic  flash. 
This  comprises  a  blind,  or  shutter,  which  is  opened  and 
closed  by  mechanism  adjusted  to  requirements  ;  while  the 
rotating  mechanism,  instead  of  being  weight-driven,  is 
actuated  by  an  electric  motor. 

The  "  differential  arc,"  which  is  utilized  in  this  installa- 
tion, is  considered  by  German  engineers  to  be  the  best 
system  that  has  yet  been  devised  for  the  exacting  pur- 
poses of  lighthouse  engineering,  and  the  description  has 
arisen  from  the  disposition  of  the  carbons.  While  the 
positive  carbon  is  held  horizontally,  the  negative  carbon  is 
placed  at  an  angle  of  70  degrees  thereto,  and  only  the 
crater  of  the  positive  carbon  is  considered  for  the  lighting 
effect,  this  being  placed  in  the  focus  of  the  apparatus. 
The  positive  carbon  is  f  inch,  and  the  negative  carbon 
I  inch,  in  diameter,  although  both  have  a  common  length 
of  19  inches,  which  is  sufficient  for  nine  hours'  service. 
The  beam  emitted  is  of  some  5,000,000  candle-power.  This 
is  one  of  the  cheapest  electric  stations  at  present  in  opera- 
tion, the  annual  running  charges  averaging  less  than  £300, 
or  $1,500. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

SOME  LIGHTHOUSES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  WATERS 

Although  the  waters  washing  the  AustraHan  continent  are 
not  so  thickly  intersected  with  steamship  lanes,  and  the 
mercantile  traffic  is  not  so  dense  there  as  in  the  seas  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  yet,  owing  to  the  activity  in  emigra- 
tion from  Great  Britain,  as  well  as  to  the  increasing  prosperity 
of  the  various  rising  industries  under  the  Southern  Cross, 
they  are  becoming  more  crowded  with  each  succeeding  year. 
The  efficient  lighting  of  the  coasts  is  an  inevitable  corollary 
of  this  expansion.  Lighthouse  engineering,  however,  is 
unavoidably  expensive,  especially  when  sea-rocks  demand 
indication. 

From  time  to  time  severe  strictures  are  passed  by 
European  shipping  interests  upon  the  apparent  lack  of 
coastal  lights  in  Australasian  waters,  and  the  various 
Government  departments  concerned  with  this  responsibility 
are  often  accused  of  parsimony  and  neglect.  Unfortunately, 
the  greater  number  of  these  critics  are  apt  to  consider  the 
situation  through  European  glasses ;  to  take  the  countries 
of  the  Old  World  and  the  United  States  as  a  basis  for  their 
arguments,  and  to  ignore  local  conditions.  It  has  taken  a 
century  or  more  for  Europe  and  the  United  States  to  develop 
their  respective  organizations,  and  in  the  majority  of 
instances  there  are  ample  funds  from  which  expenses  in 
this  direction  may  be  met,  especially  when  passing  shipping 
is  mulcted  a  small  sum  in  light-dues  for  the  purpose.  When 
the  shipping  is  heavy,  these  levies  are  certain  to  represent  in 
the  aggregate  a  large  sum  every  year. 

From  time  to  time  New  Zealand  has  been  roundly  assailed 
for  its  apparent  negligence  in  the  extension  of  its  lighthouse 
system.     It  maintains  thirty-four  lighthouses  and  beacons, 

229 


230  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

which  represent  a  capital  outlay  of  over  ^^200,000,  or 
$1,000,000.  The  total  maintenance  charges  average  about 
£16,500,  or  $82,000,  per  annum,  while  the  dues  collected 
from  shipping  for  the  maintenance  of  these  aids  to  navigation 
approximate  £38,000,  or  $190,000,  per  annum.  The  balance 
is  not  amazing,  and  certainly  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant 
heavy  expenditure  towards  new  lights,  as  the  installation  of 
such  warnings  nowadays  is  highly  expensive  if  they  are  to 
conform  with  modern  requirements.  If  the  demands  of 
the  critics  were  met,  and  a  comprehensive  scheme,  such  as 
is  advised,  were  taken  in  hand,  the  shipowner  would  have 
to  pay  to  meet  the  deficiency  on  the  revenue  account,  and 
this  individual  complains  that  he  is  overtaxed  already. 

Those  Australian  States  which  possess  what  may  be 
described  as  a  normal  coastline — that  is,  one  fairly  free 
from  solitary  rocks  rising  from  the  sea  some  distance  from 
land — are  fortunate,  since  the  sea-rock  light  is  notoriously 
costly.  On  the  other  hand,  lights  placed  on  the  mainland, 
even  of  the  most  powerful  type,  may  be  completed  for  a 
small  outlay,  relatively  speaking. 

Such  a  fortunate  condition  exists  in  connection  with  New 
South  Wales.  Here  and  there  off  the  mainland  are  small 
reefs  and  ridges,  but,  taken  on  the  whole,  all  these  danger 
spots  are  adequately  covered,  so  that  the  State  has  not  been 
faced  with  searching  problems  of  a  technical  or  financial 
character  in  this  connection.  The  State  boasts  only  two 
"  rock "  lighthouses,  and  these  obstructions  are  large 
enough  to  be  called  "  islands."  The  one  is  South  Solitary 
Island,  off  the  coast  north  of  Sydney ;  the  other  is  Montague 
Island,  to  the  south  of  the  port.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
mainland  is  very  well  patrolled,  some  thirty  hghts  being 
scattered  between  Point  Danger  and  Cape  Howe,  the 
respective  northern  and  southern  sea-limits  of  the  country. 

Although  the  light-keepers  upon  the  rocks  may  consider 
themselves  somewhat  isolated,  yet  their  plight  is  enviable 
as  compared  with  that  of  some  of  their  comrades  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  At  Montague  Island  the  three  keepers 
and  their  families  are  housed  in  comfortable  cottages  in 


LIGHTHOUSES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  WATERS       231 

close  proximity  to  their  ward,  and  they  mantain  a  small 
farm,  including  a  horse,  goats,  well-stocked  gardens,  and  so 
forth.  The  keepers  on  South  Solitary  Island  used  to  be 
able  to  vary  the  monotony  of  their  daily  or  nightly  round 
by  indulgence  in  exciting  sport.  This  assumed  the  form  of 
rabbit  trapping  and  hunting,  as  the  island  was  overrun  with 
these  animals.  One  form  of  game  must  have  become  some- 
what nauseating  in  time  upon  the  menu  of  the  keepers,  but 
this  diversion  is  now  a  thing  of  the  past.  A  mysterious 
disease  appeared  among  the  rabbits,  and  its  ravages  were 
so  devastating  that  within  a  short  time  Montague  Island 
knew  them  no  more. 

The  lighthouses  of  New  South  Wales  deserve  distinction 
in  one  direction.  As  specimens  of  architecture  they  are 
magnificent  pieces  of  work,  so  that  what  the  towers  lack 
in  romance  they  make  up  in  attractiveness.  The  most 
imposing  is  the  Macquarie  tower,  or  Sydney  lighthouse, 
mounting  guard  over  the  harbour.  The  first  beacon  was 
erected  upon  this  site  as  far  back  as  1816,  thereby  rendering 
it  the  first  lighthouse  in  the  State,  and  it  was  fitted  with  an 
oil  light,  while  one  or  two  of  the  English  lights  were  still 
open  coal  fires.  In  1883  it  was  decided  to  modernize  the 
lighting  apparatus,  so  that  a  more  powerful  beam  might 
be  thrown.  Electricity  was  the  illuminant  selected,  the 
machinery  for  the  generation  of  the  requisite  current  being 
designed  for  installation  in  the  original  tower.  But  three- 
quarters  of  a  century's  exposure  to  the  elements  had  ren- 
dered this  building  somewhat  too  weak  to  carry  the  requisite 
heavy  lenses  and  machinery,  so  a  new  tower  was  projected. 
The  old  light  was  kept  going  while  its  successor  sprang  up 
alongside  ;  when  the  latter  was  completed,  the  oil  light  in 
the  famous  old  tower  was  extinguished  for  ever  and  the 
building  demolished. 

The  new  lighthouse  is  a  fine  structure.  At  the  foot  of  the 
tower  is  a  spacious,  well-lighted,  and  artistic  one-floor  build- 
ing housing  the  electrical  machinery  as  well  as  the  office. 
The  domiciles  for  the  keepers  and  the  engineers  are  placed 
on  either  side  of  the  spreading  lawn  surrounding  the  station. 


232  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  most  southerly  light  upon  the  New  South  Wales 
coastline  is  that  at  Green  Cape,  a  few  miles  north  of  Cape 
Howe.  As  at  the  other  stations,  three  keepers  are  main- 
tained, being  accommodated,  with  their  families,  in  roomy 
cottages ;  while  a  small  patch  of  land  is  turned  to  agricultural 
advantage,  cows,  horses,  etc.,  being  maintained  by  the 
men.  The  most  easterly  light  on  the  Australian  continent 
is  at  Cape  Byron.  This  light  is  perched  on  a  dangerous  cliff, 
which  drops  almost  vertically  into  the  water  371  feet  below ; 
but  it  is  within  touch  of  civilization,  a  winding  road  having 
been  cut  down  the  flank  of  the  promontory  on  the  land  side 
into  the  neighbouring  town  of  Byron  Bay,  so  that  the 
tradesmen's  carts  are  able  to  make  their  rounds  up  the  cliff 
to  satisfy  the  varied  wants  of  the  wardens  of  the  light. 
One  of  the  loneliest  lights  is  that  on  Norah  Head — Bun- 
garee  Norah  it  is  called — and  this  is  also  the  latest  light 
erected  by  the  State,  as  it  dates  from  1903.  Although 
somewhat  out  of  the  way,  it  is  not  to  be  compared  with 
some  of  the  isolated  British,  Canadian,  and  United  States 
lights,  being,  in  fact,  no  more  inaccessible  or  lonely  than 
most  localities  in  the  Australian  Bush. 

Sugar-Loaf  Point  is  one  of  the  most  serious  danger  spots 
along  the  shoreline,  but  is  now  well  guarded  with  a  fine 
lighthouse  planted  on  its  summit,  the  welcome  rays  of 
which  are  visible  for  many  miles  out  to  sea.  The  light- 
keepers  here  had  a  surprising  discovery  one  morning  in 
1910.  The  Satara  fouled  the  point  and  was  wrecked, 
though  fortunately  her  passengers  were  succoured  by  passing 
steamers.  On  this  vessel  at  the  time  of  the  disaster  there 
was  a  staghound,  and  although,  when  the  rescues  were 
effected,  search  for  the  animal  was  made  high  and  low  on  the 
wreck,  no  signs  of  it  could  be  seen.  It  was  given  up  as  lost. 
Some  days  later  the  lighthouse-keepers  ventured  to  the 
beach  below  to  have  a  look  round,  and  to  their  astonishment 
a  staghound  come  bounding  towards  them,  yelping  with 
joy  at  the  sight  of  a  human  face.  For  a  dog  to  be  in  such  a 
lonely  spot  was  a  strange  circumstance,  but  at  last  it  was 
surmised  to  be  the  animal  which  was  missed  on  the  Satara. 


o 

a 

K 

c 

o 

« 

X 

CO 

15 

jj 

|V] 

i/J 

(3 

Q 

3 

bo 

<J 

3 

D 

m 

O 

o 

O 

"u 

■z 

c 

THE   CAPE    BYRON    LIGHTHOUSE,    NEW   SOUTH    WALES. 


THE    MACQUARIE    LIGHTHOUSE,    SOUTH    HEAD   OF   SYDNEY    HARBOUR, 
NEW   SOUTH    WALES. 

The  original  tower,  erected  in  1816,  was  the  first  lighthouse  built  in  the  State.      In  1882  it  made 
way  for  the  present  magnificent  station. 


LIGHTHOUSES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  WATERS       233 

Apparently  the  animal  clung  to  the  crippled  craft  for  some 
time,  and  then,  realizing  that  the  ship  was  abandoned,  dived 
overboard  and  swam  ashore.  It  fraternized  with  the 
keepers,  and  for  some  time  kept  them  company  at  the 
station. 

One  of  the  worst  wrecks  which  have  happened  upon  the 
shores  of  New  South  Wales  was  that  of  the  steamer  Ly-ce- 
moon.  By  some  inexplicable  means  the  ship  got  out  of  her 
course  on  a  fine  Sunday  night,  and  came  to  grief  off  Green 
Cape.  The  lighthouse-keepers  at  once  hurried  to  the  rescue, 
the  hapless  passengers,  as  they  were  got  ashore,  being  tended 
at  the  station  until  they  were  removed  to  their  homes.  The 
lighthouse-keepers  worked  tremendously  hard,  but  they 
were  not  entirely  successful.  Although  by  herculean  effort 
they  brought  a  large  number  of  people  to  safety,  there  is  a 
small  fenced  enclosure  in  the  Bush  behind  the  station  where 
lie  the  remains  of  some  fifty  persons  who  lost  their  lives  in 
the  wreck,  and  whose  bodies  were  washed  ashore. 

While  New  South  Wales  has  a  comparatively  easy  length 
of  coastline  to  protect,  the  neighbouring  colony  of  New 
Zealand,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  wild,  forbidding,  and 
extensive  stretch  of  shore.  Up  to  the  present  the  Govern- 
ment has  concentrated  its  energies  upon  the  illumination  of 
the  busiest  reaches  of  water,  and  has  planted  prominent 
outposts  at  the  respective  extreme  tips  of  the  twin  islands. 
During  the  financial  year  ending  March  31,  1912,  sixteen 
wrecks  occurred  in  these  seas,  of  which  six  were  total  losses. 
The  most  ill-famed  corner  appears  to  be  the  large  sweeping 
indentation  at  the  southern  end  of  North  Island,  lying 
between  Cape  Egmont  and  Wellington,  particularly  in  the 
vicinity  of  Wanganui,  since  this  stretch  of  coast  claimed 
five  victims.  Cook's  Strait,  which  is  dangerous  to  navi- 
gators, is  well  protected,  however,  the  most  prominent 
beacon  being  that  on  Stephens  Island,  its  group-flashes, 
occurring  every  thirty  seconds,  being  particularly  powerful, 
and  having  a  range  of  thirty-tv/o  miles. 

The  Marine  Department  maintains  thirty-two  coastal 
lights,  of  which  twenty-two  are  on  the  mainland,  and  ten 


234  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

situate  on  islands  off  the  coast.  They  are  of  a  varied 
description,  ranging  from  powerful  lights  of  the  first  order 
to  beacons  dependent  upon  dissolved  acetylene,  stored  in 
cylinders  of  sufficient  capacity  to  keep  the  light  gleaming 
for  sixty  days  continuously.  Some  of  the  places  in  which 
the  warning  lights  are  placed  are  exceedingly  lonely 
and  inaccessible,  so  that  the  perfection  of  the  unattended 
light  has  solved  a  complex  problem,  and  has  enabled 
many  terrible  stretches  of  forbidding  coast  to  be  well 
indicated. 

The  first  tower  to  be  brought  into  service  in  New  Zealand 
was  that  on  Pencarrow  Head,  to  indicate  the  entrance  to 
the  inlet  in  which  Wellington  nestles.  It  shed  its  rays  for 
the  first  time  on  New  Year's  Day,  1859.  ^^  is  an  iron  struc- 
ture, from  the  top  of  which  a  fixed  white  light  may  be  picked 
up  by  a  vessel  twenty-seven  miles  off  the  coast.  The  iron 
had  to  be  prepared  and  shaped  in  England,  as  there  was 
no  foundry  in  the  islands  at  that  time  capable  of  executing 
the  work.  The  building  was  shipped  to  New  Zealand  in 
sections  and  erected.  To-day,  owing  to  the  growth  of  the 
iron  industry,  the  country  can  supply  all  its  own  needs 
in  this  field  without  difficulty,  but  in  all  cases  the  lan- 
terns, mechanism,  and  lenses,  have  to  be  acquired  in 
Europe. 

As  may  be  imagined,  with  such  a  rugged  coastline  as 
New  Zealand  possesses,  some  of  the  stations  are  terribly 
lonely  and  difficult  of  access,  owing  to  the  treacherous  nature 
of  the  waters  over  which  they  mount  guard.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Brothers  light,  which  is  situated  on  an 
exposed  rock  in  Cook's  Strait,  three  keepers  are  maintained 
at  each  island  lighthouse — one  as  relief — and  at  the  more 
isolated  mainland  lights.  Those  of  the  latter  stations  which 
are  within  easy  reach  of  civilization  have  only  two  keepers. 
The  Brothers  light,  which  is  New  Zealand's  most  lonely 
station,  has  four  keepers,  three  on  the  rock  at  one  time, 
while  the  fourth  is  ashore.  The  spell  of  service  on  the  rock 
is  three  months,  followed  by  one  month's  leave.  The 
wives  and  families  of  the  men  reside  at  Wellington.     The 


By  permission  of  the  Lighthouse  Literature  Mission. 
PAINTING   THE   TROUBRIDGE    LIGHTHOUSE,   SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

Keeping  the  building  in  repair  is  one  of  the  lighthouse  keepers'  duties.     This  is  especially  urgent  in 
the  case  of  an  iron  structure      This  tower  is  78  feet  high,  the  light  being  visible  for  15  miles. 


By  fei-inission  of  (lie  Lighthouse  Likfatiirc  Miss 
GREEN    POINT    LIGHTHOUSE,    NATAL. 
A  well-known  South  African  warning  with  a  range  of  23  miles. 


THE   PACIFIC   OUTPOST   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

The  San  Francisco  Lightship  throws  a  flashing  electric  beam  of  700  candle-power  and  is  fitted 
also  with  the  submarine  bell. 


LIGHTHOUSES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  WATERS       235 

authorities,  however,  do  not  condemn  the  light-keeper  to 
one  station  throughout  his  whole  term  of  service.  He 
undergoes  frequent  transference,  so  that  all  may  have  a 
turn  at  good  and  bad  stations.  The  duration  of  the  stay  at 
each  light  averages  about  three  years,  so  that  there  is  very 
little  possibility  of  these  patient,  long-suffering  stalwarts 
being  condemned  to  such  a  period  of  loneliness  as  to 
provoke  taciturnity  and  melancholia. 

The  keeper  of  the  lighthouse  light  in  New  Zealand  is  as 
well  provided  for  as  his  colleague  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world.  When  he  enters  the  service,  he  is  placed  on  probation 
as  assistant  keeper  for  six  months,  at  an  annual  salary  of 
;^go,  or  $450.  Emerging  from  this  ordeal  satisfactorily,  he 
finds  his  salary  increased  at  once  to  ;^ioo,  or  $500,  per 
annum,  rising  by  increments  of  £10  every  two  years,  until 
it  reaches  £130,  or  $650,  per  annum.  It  remains  at  this 
figure  until  he  is  promoted  to  the  position  of  head-keeper, 
which  post  brings  an  annual  wage  of  ;£i40,  or  $700,  rising 
by  biennial  increments  of  £10  to  a  maximum  annual  remu- 
neration of  £180,  or  $900.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing 
scale,  a  keeper  receives  an  extra  annual  station  allowance  of 
£10  in  the  case  of  third-class  stations,  which  are  those  on 
lonely  rocks  and  islands,  and  £5  in  the  case  of  stations  which 
are  not  isolated  or  difficult  of  access.  All  keepers  in  the 
service  live  rent-free,  and  are  supplied  with  coal  and  oil, 
together  with  the  free  use  of  sufficient  land,  if  available,  to 
prepare  gardens,  as  well  as  grazing  for  two  or  three  cows 
and  a  few  sheep,  etc. ;  while  their  stores  and  provisions  are 
carried  without  charge  by  the  Government  stedimer  Hinemoa. 
This  vessel  is  retained  solely  for  attending  upon  the  light- 
houses and  buoys,  and  visits  every  light,  save  in  exception  - 
ally  rough  weather,  once  in  three  months. 

At  all  the  isolated  and  rock  stations  landing  is  a  hazardous 
task,  even  under  the  most  favourable  conditions.  The  swell 
and  currents  breaking  upon  the  rocks  render  it  impossible 
for  freight  and  men  to  be  landed  direct  from  the  steamer 
to  the  rock.  Consequently  all  the  work  has  to  be  carried  out 
by  means  of  surf -boats,  and  heavy  drenchings  from  breaking 


236  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

waves,  and  exciting  moments,  are  unavoidable.  At  times 
the  task  assumes  exceptional  difficulty,  and  is  attended 
with  fatal  mishaps.  On  June  2,  1899,  the  Hinemoa  stood 
in  towards  the  East  Cape,  the  most  easterly  promontory  on 
the  islands,  on  the  southern  arm  enclosing  the  Bay  of  Plenty. 
The  sea  looked  wicked,  but  the  relieving  ship  decided  to  go 
ahead  with  its  work.  All  went  well  until  a  heavy  roller 
suddenly  came  in  and  caught  one  of  the  boats  at  a  dis- 
advantage. The  craft  was  capsized  before  the  crew  realized 
their  position,  and  the  chief  officer,  with  three  of  his  men, 
was  drowned.  Such  is  one  of  the  penalties  which  have 
been  exacted  by  the  relentless  sea,  while  courageous 
men  have  been  engaged  in  the  risky  occupation  of  keep- 
ing the  coast  lights  shining  for  the  guidance  of  sea- 
farers. 

The  New  Zealand  shores  have  been  the  scenes  of  some 
heartrending  catastrophes.  The  steamship  Tararua,  of 
563  tons  register,  was  making  her  way  from  Dunedin  to  the 
Bluff,  when  she  crashed  on  to  the  reef  which  juts  seaward 
from  Waipapapa  Point.  There  was  no  light  to  warn  the 
ship — hence  the  accident.  The  vessel,  battered  by  sledge- 
hammer seas,  broke  up  very  rapidly,  and  130  passengers 
lost  their  lives.  If  the  point  had  been  guarded,  no  accident 
would  have  happened.  Now  a  second-order  dioptric  flashing 
light  of  ten  seconds  guards  the  reef,  and  may  be  seen  from 
a  distance  of  thirteen  and  a  half  miles.  Another  calamity 
was  the  loss  of  the  Huddart  Parker  liner  on  a  danger  spot 
known  as  the  Three  Kings  Rock.  The  fearsome  character 
of  this  peril  has  been  recognized  for  many  years  past,  but, 
as  it  is  to  be  marked  by  a  light  suited  to  the  locality,  it  is 
hoped  that  its  evil  harvest  will  come  to  an  end.  Yet  at 
the  same  time  it  must  be  pointed  out  that  the  provision  of 
a  light  does  not  always  prevent  a  wreck  even  in  the  clearest 
weather,  owing  to  the  weakness  of  human  nature.  This 
was  proved  by  the  steamship  Triumph,  of  1,797  tons  register. 
She  left  Auckland  on  the  night  of  November  29,  1883, 
picked  up  the  Tiri-Tiri  Island  light — this  fixed  star  can  be 
seen  from  a  distance  of  twenty -four  miles — and  yet  within 


LIGHTHOUSES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  WATERS      237 

two  hours  of  her  sailing  was  wrecked  almost  under  the  light- 
house. In  this  instance  gross  negligence  was  only  too 
palpable,  and  the  court  of  inquiry,  after  its  investigation 
of  the  wreck,  signified  its  opinion  of  the  carelessness  dis- 
played by  suspending  the  certificate  of  the  master  for  three 
years,  and  that  of  the  chief  officer  for  six  months. 

Apart  from  Cook's  Strait,  the  narrow  passage  between  the 
two  islands,  the  extreme  points  of  the  country  are  well 
guarded,  the  toWers  for  the  most  part  being  located  upon 
the  prominent  headlands.  The  southern  extremity  of  the 
South  Island  is  a  dangerous  coast  to  navigate,  since  going 
east,  after  the  Puysegur  Point  ten  seconds  flashing  light  is 
dropped  at  a  distance  of  nineteen  miles  from  the  headland, 
the  vessel's  course  is  set  to  traverse  Foveaux  Strait,  between 
the  mainland  and  Stewart  Island.  In  the  centre  of  the 
neck  of  water  is  an  ominous  rock,  Centre  Island,  which, 
however,  is  well  guarded  by  a  first-order  catadioptric  fixed 
light,  shining  from  a  wooden  tower,  the  range  of  which 
extends  for  twenty-two  and  a  half  miles,  with  red  arcs 
marking  the  inshore  dangers.  Overlapping  this  beacon's 
field  of  patrol  is  a  light  mounted  on  Dog  Island,  revolving 
once  in  thirty  seconds,  and  visible  for  eighteen  miles,  which 
in  turn  meets  the  Waipapapa  light.  Thus  the  approach  to 
Invercargill  is  well  indicated,  and,  with  the  east  coast 
promontories  all  protected,  the  possibility  of  a  repetition 
of  the  Tararua  disaster  is  rendered  remote. 

On  the  extreme  northern  tip  of  the  sister  isle,  the  headland 
known  as  Cape  Maria  Van  Diemen  carries  a  first-order 
dioptric  light,  revolving  once  a  minute,  illuminating  a  circle 
of  sea  having  a  radius  of  twenty-four  and  a  half  miles.  The 
adjacent  headland  at  the  opposite  corner  of  this  spit,  North 
Cape,  has  not  been  protected  hitherto  ;  but  this  deficiency 
is  now  being  remedied  by  the  erection  of  a  second-order, 
incandescent,  group-flashing  white  light,  giving  three 
flashes  in  quick  succession  every  half -minute.  The  brilliant 
illumination  of  this  part  of  the  coast  is  imperative,  inasmuch 
as  shipping  bound  for  and  from  Auckland  has  to  bear  round 
this  heavily  indented  and  rock-strewn  coast.    The  entrance 


238  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

to  Auckland  harbour  in  particular  is  disconcerting,  but 
the  navigator  is  assisted  by  the  friendly  guardians  placed  on 
Cape  Brett,  Moko  Hinou,  and  Tiri-Tiri,  which  have  ranges 
of  thirty  and  a  half,  twenty-six,  and  twenty-four  miles, 
respectively.  The  task  of  the  mariner,  however,  is  to  be 
further  simplified  by  the  erection  of  another  powerful  light 
on  Chicken  Island,  in  the  Hauraki  Gulf,  which  will  overlap 
the  Moko  Hinou  and  Tiri-Tiri  lights.  When  this  light  and 
that  at  North  Cape  are  placed  in  commission,  the  sea 
between  Cape  Maria  Van  Diemen  and  Auckland  will  be  very 
well  lighted,  and  will  offer  the  ship's  master  few  causes  for 
complaint.  Two  other  points  are  being  equipped.  Castle 
Point  and  Cape  Terawhiti,  the  former  with  a  second-order, 
incandescent,  group-flashing  white  light,  flashing  at  inter- 
vals of  forty-five  seconds,  with  periods  of  darkness  lasting 
eight  seconds  between  each  group. 

While  the  majority  of  the  New  Zealand  coastal  lights 
are  attended,  certain  beacons,  from  their  exposed  position, 
come  in  the  category  of  unattended  lights,  as  described  else- 
where. These  burn  acetylene  gas,  and  are  replaced  with 
fresh  supplies  of  dissolved  acetylene  every  three  months  by 
the  Hinemoa.  Simultaneously  with  the  provision  of  ad- 
ditional beacons  the  existing  lights  are  being  overhauled  and 
fitted  with  modern  apparatus,  rendering  them  more  reliable, 
economical,  and  of  greater  power.  When  the  service  was 
established,  the  Doty  burner,  using  paraffin-oil,  was  adopted ; 
but  the  perfection  of  the  incandescent  oil  system,  and  its 
many  advantages  over  that  in  vogue,  have  influenced  the 
Government  towards  its  adoption.  The  transformation 
will  be  completed  as  soon  as  practicable,  the  work  being  in 
active  progress,  as  maintenance  expenses  are  reduced 
appreciably  thereby,  because  kerosene,  a  cheaper  oil,  is  used 
in  lieu  of  paraffin,  while,  furthermore,  less  oil  is  burned  under 
the  incandescent  system. 

Before  many  years  have  passed,  the  coasts  of  New  Zealand 
will  be  as  adequately  protected  as  is  humanly  possible  by 
a  complete  chain  of  coastal  lights,  which  is  being  forged  as 
rapidly  as  the  circumstances  permit.    The  Government  has 


LIGHTHOUSES  IN  AUSTRALIAN  WATERS       239 

revised  its  light-dues  in  order  to  meet  the  increased  ex- 
penditure in  connection  with  the  lighthouse  service.  Vessels 
arriving  from  outside  the  Dominion  have  to  pay  oversea 
light-dues  at  the  first  port  of  call,  and  coastal  dues  at  all 
other  New  Zealand  ports  which  they  touch ;  while  vessels 
arriving  from  the  Chatham,  Auckland,  Campbell,  Antipodes, 
and  Bounty  Islands  also  have  to  contribute  to  the  funds. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS 

Although  by  dint  of  great  effort  and  the  expenditure  of 
considerable  ingenuity  the  Hghthouse  engineer  has  suc- 
ceeded in  erecting  a  permanent  masonry  tower  upon  a 
foundation  no  more  substantial  than  quicksand,  yet  the 
general  method  of  indicating  these  menaces  is  by  the  aid 
of  a  lightship.  In  this  way  the  estuaries  leading  to  the 
great  ports  of  the  world,  which  are  littered  with  ridges, 
humps,  and  mounds,  of  mud  and  sand  brought  down  by  the 
river  or  thrown  up  by  the  sea,  are  guarded  very  com- 
pletely. There  is  the  Nore  lightship  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Thames,  the  Bar  and  North-West  lightships  off  the  mouth  of 
the  Mersey,  Fire  Island  near  the  portal  to  New  York,  and 
so  on.  Similarly,  the  whereabouts  of  huge  stretches  of  sand 
lying  off  a  coast,  which  either  defy  detection  altogether  or 
only  partially  expose  themselves  at  low-water,  and  which 
constitute  certain  death-traps,  are  shown.  The  most  striking 
illustrations  of  this  application  are  supplied  by  the  Goodwin 
Sands,  the  submerged  sandy  plateau  lying  off  the  east  coast 
of  England,  and  by  the  serried  rows  of  ridges  running  seven 
and  a  half  miles  out  to  sea  from  Cape  Hatteras,  the  ill-famed 
headland  of  North  Carolina. 

The  utilization  of  the  lightship,  however,  is  not  restricted 
by  any  means  to  marking  shoals  and  sandbanks.  Here  and 
there  are  clusters  of  rocks  obstructing  the  ocean  highway, 
which  from  their  extremely  exposed  character  would  offer 
the  engineer  a  searching  and  expensive  problem  to  solve, 
and  which,  accordingly,  are  protected  by  a  floating  light. 
But,  taken  on  the  whole,  the  lightship  is  used  very  sparingly. 
If  it  is  at  all  possible  to  provide  a  permanent  structure,  even 
at  an  apparently  prohibitive  cost,  upon  a  danger  spot,  this 

240 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS  241 

practice  is  followed  in  preference  to  the  mooring  of  a  light- 
vessel  thereto.  A  masonry  tower  is  stationary  in  its 
resistance  to  the  assaults  of  the  wildest  tempest,  but  the 
lightship  swings  like  a  cork  at  the  free  end  of  a  chain.  At 
times  it  drags  its  anchors,  and  thereby  unconsciously  shifts 
its  position,  so  that  it  may  throw  its  light  from  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  actual  area  of  danger.  Again,  a  lightship, 
athough  not  costly  in  the  first  instance,  is  som.ewhat  ex- 
pensive to  maintain.  It  cannot  withstand  the  poundings 
of  the  waves  and  the  force  of  the  wind  for  long  without 
developing  some  signs  of  weakness.  It  may  ride  over  its 
reef  or  shoal  for  several  years,  but  depreciation  is  sure  to 
set  in,  so  that  at  last  it  becomes  too  decrepit  to  be  trusted. 
Moreover,  the  number  of  men  required  to  man  a  lightship 
exceeds  the  force  necessary  to  maintain  a  lighthouse. 

Lightships  follow  much  the  same  general  shape  and  con- 
struction the  whole  world  over.  There  is  very  little  oppor- 
tunity to  depart  from  well-tried  lines  ;  the  experience  of  a 
century  and  more  has  indicated  conclusively  the  form  of 
hull,  as  regards  both  material  and  shape,  best  adapted  to 
"the  peculiar  work  which  has  to  be  fulfilled.  The  modern 
lightship  is  essentially  a  British  idea,  the  first  floating  beacon 
of  this  description  having  been  built  and  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames  as  far  back  as  1713.  From  this  small 
beginning,  which  virtually  was  an  experiment,  has  grown 
the  large  fleet  of  light-vessels  scattered  all  over  the  globe. 

The  craft  is  sturdily  built,  and,  although  of  clumsy  appear- 
ance, is  capable  of  withstanding  the  onslaughts  of  the  fiercest 
gales.  Internally  it  is  made  as  snug  as  possible,  but  the 
opportunities  in  this  direction  are  not  very  extensive,  as 
the  beacon  is  built  primarily  to  protect  ships  and  lives 
against  accident,  and  comfort  is  necessarily  made  subordinate 
to  reliability,  durability,  and  serviceability. 

A  mere  hulk  would  be  the  most  apt  description  as  applied 
to  the  average  lightship.  It  is  intended  to  cling  to  one  spot 
through  thick  and  thin,  and  not  to  move  about.  In  the 
majority  of  instances  the  vessel  is  without  any  propelling  or 
sailing  accessories.     If  it  should  happen-  to  break  its  leashes, 

I6 


242  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

it  then  becomes  the  sport  of  the  waves,  as  helpless  as  a 
derelict,  until  its  signals  of  distress  are  espied  and  it  is 
picked  up  by  a  passing  vessel.  Although  every  precaution 
is  adopted  to  preserve  the  lightship  from  this  mishap,  when 
the  waves  become  exceptionally  heavy  and  violent  the 
strongest  chains  are  apt  to  snap  under  the  sawing  and 
tugging  of  the  vessel.  In  one  or  two  instances  lively  times 
have  been  experienced  by  the  handful  of  men  on  board, 
especially  off  the  wicked  stretches  of  the  American  seaboard 
which  is  exposed  to  the  attack  of  hurricane  and  cyclone. 

In  her  helplessness,  the  light-vessel  depends  upon  the 
friendly  aid  of  any  craft.  The  rescuer  may  be  the  alert 
tender,  which,  having  received  intimation  that  the  floating 
beacon  has  got  adrift,  raises  steam  in  all  haste,  hurries  out, 
scours  the  seas  for  the  wanderer,  recovers  and  rechains  her 
to  the  danger  spot  below.  Or  it  may  be  that  a  passing 
steamer  sights  the  breakaway,  retrieves  and  restores  her  to 
the  allotted  position,  making  her  temporarily  secure,  and 
reporting  her  condition  when  passing  or  entering  a  port. 

The  lightship  may  be  identified  easily.  There  is  nothing 
inspiring  about  her  lines.  Her  ugly  hull,  built  for  strength 
and  not  beauty,  is  painted  red,  black,  or  white,  according  to 
the  colour  practice  of  the  country  to  which  she  belongs,  while 
on  her  sides  in  huge  letters,  stretching  almost  from  water- 
line  to  taffrail,  is  the  name  of  her  station,  "  Nore,"  "  Seven 
Stones,"  "  Norderney,"  "  Ruytingen,"  "  Fire  Island,"  or 
whatever  it  may  be.  Nor  is  this  the  sole  means  of  identifi- 
cation. From  afar  the  mariner  learns  her  character  and 
business  by  a  huge  skeleton  sphere,  a  triangular  cage,  or  some 
other  device,  carried  at  the  top  of  the  mast  or  masts.  At 
night  a  lantern,  entirely  surrounding  the  mast,  and  large 
enough  to  enable  a  person  to  stand  upright  within  to  trim 
the  lamps,  throws  its  warning  glare  from  an  elevation  about 
halfway  between  the  deck  and  the  mast-top  with  the  in- 
tensity of  12,000  or  more  candles.  Oil  is  the  illuminant 
most  generally  employed  for  the  purpose,  although  in  one  or 
two  instances  electric  light  is  used. 

The  specific  purpose  of  the  lightship,  as  already  men- 


tf 


w     g 
H     -5 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS  243 

tioned,  is  to  warn  passing  vessels.  But  the  French  Govern- 
ment, when  they  made  an  elaborate  investigation  of  their 
lightship  service  with  a  view  to  its  modernization  and 
elaboration,  discovered  that  at  times  the  jfloating  signpost 
fulfils  another  and  unofficial  duty.  The  entrance  to  St.  Malo 
Harbour  is  flanked  by  an  uneven  group  of  rocks  lying  about 
midway  between  the  French  coast  and  the  island  of  Jersey. 
Though  a  terrible  spot  for  mariners,  it  is  one  of  incalculable 
value  to  the  sturdy  French  and  Jersey  fishermen,  as  in  the 
waters  around  these  barriers  rich  hauls  may  be  made  with 
the  net ;  indeed,  the  fishing  industry  here  affords  employ- 
ment for  several  score  of  persons.  The  French  Government 
contemplated  the  withdrawal  of  the  lightship  marking  the 
Minquiers,  as  these  rocks  are  called,  and  the  substitution  in 
its  stead  of  a  number  of  powerful  automatic  buoys  which 
would  indicate  the  exact  position  of  the  most  conspicuous 
dangers,  whereas  the  lightship  only  indicated  their  general 
whereabouts,  compelling  mariners  to  calculate  their  distances 
from  the  peril,  which,  by  the  way,  was  no  easy  matter  owing 
to  the  short  range  of  the  beacon. 

Before  making  a  decision,  the  Commission  interviewed  the 
French  fishermen  to  ascertain  their  views  upon  the  subject. 
To  their  intense  surprise,  a  suggestion  which  they  thought 
would  be  received  with  unmixed  approval  was  condemned 
unequivocally.  There  was  not  a  single  fisherman  who 
could  be  found  to  support  the  buoy  system.  The  unanimity 
of  the  objection  aroused  suspicions,  and  further  investigation 
was  made  to  probe  the  cause  of  this  unveiled  hostility.  The 
answer  was  found  without  effort.  The  fishermen  pushed 
off  in  their  boats  every  night  to  the  grounds,  but  they  did 
not  spend  the  whole  of  their  time  throwing  and  hauling  their 
nets.  When  their  luck  was  in,  or  they  were  satisfied  with 
the  catch,  one  and  all  pulled  for  the  lightship.  There  was 
not  another  cafe  within  a  dozen  miles,  and  fishing  is  thirsty 
work.  So  the  lightship  was  converted  into  a  nocturnal 
hostelry.  The  keepers  charged  the  glasses,  and  the  captains 
courageous  sipped  and  quaffed  to  a  whistling  accompani- 
ment, finally  indulging  in  terpsichorean  acts  on  the  light- 


244  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

ship's  decks,  to  give  vent  to  their  exuberant  spirits.  They 
did  not  care  whether  the  light  overhead  were  throwing  its 
yellow  beams  over  the  waters  or  not.  They  made  merry, 
and  kept  up  the  orgy  until  the  approaching  dawn  or  the 
watch  showed  that  it  was  high  time  to  pull  for  the  shore 
with  their  catches.  It  was  a  fortunate  circumstance  for 
these  happy-go-lucky  spirits  that  the  beacon  was  not 
regarded  by  mariners  as  of  much  utility  at  night,  owing  to 
the  feebleness  of  its  light.  If  seafarers  failed  to  pick  up 
the  Minquiers's  shimmering  star,  they  attributed  the  ob- 
scurity to  the  haze.     That  was  all. 

This  revelation,  needless  to  say,  clinched  the  Commission's 
decision.  To-day  four  unattended  gas-buoys  mount  vigil 
over  these  rocks,  and  the  rollicking  days  on  the  floating  cafe 
chantant  are  known  no  more. 

The  average  crew  for  a  lightship  numbers  some  seven  men 
under  a  captain  and  mate,  who  take  it  in  turns  to  have 
charge  of  the  vessel,  the  second  official  being  responsible 
during  the  former's  spell  of  leave  on  shore.  The  crew  is  not 
a  man  too  many,  owing  to  the  several  and  varied  duties  to 
be  performed,  especially  when  the  storm-fiend  is  roused  or 
fog  pays  a  visit.  The  arrival  of  the  latter  demands  the  fog- 
horn's mournful  dirge  to  penetrate  the  dense  white  curtain. 
Some  of  the  vessels  possess  a  hooter,  the  unmusical  wail  of 
which  in  its  discordance  is  almost  sufficient  to  put  false 
teeth  on  edge,  because  a  blast  runs  through  the  whole 
chromatic  gamut  with  variations  which  would  startle  a 
disciple  of  Tschaikowsky  or  Wagner.  But  discordance  in 
this  instance  is  of  incalculable  value.  The  ear  of  the  captain 
of  a  passing  vessel  is  unconsciously  arrested  ;  he  can  dis- 
tinguish the  sound  readily,  and  by  noting  its  character  can 
identify  the  particular  light-vessel  from  which  it  proceeds, 
although  he  cannot  get  a  glimpse  of  her  form. 

The  southern  coasts  of  England,  owing  to  the  density  of 
the  maritime  traffic,  especially  on  both  sides  of  the  bottle- 
neck formed  by  the  Straits  of  Dover,  are  well  patrolled  by 
this  form  of  warning  which  supplements  the  lighthouses. 
Those  guarding  the  dreaded  Goodwin  Sands  perhaps  are 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS  245 

the  most  important.  The  crew  of  a  vessel  in  these  waters 
is  busy  throughout  the  day  and  night  even  in  calm,  clear 
weather,  and  the  feeling  of  isolation  is  not  so  pronounced, 
since  the  continuous  sight  of  traffic  dispels  despondency.  The 
Nore  light  is  another  station  which  encounters  very  few 
minutes  of  rest  throughout  the  complete  revolution  of  the 
clock  hands  ;  especially  is  this  the  case  when  fog  settles 
down,  rendering  the  Thames  inapproachable,  so  that  in- 
coming craft  have  to  line  up  in  long  queues,  ready  to  dash 
forward  directly  the  pall  lifts  sufficiently  for  them  to  see 
100  yards  ahead. 

There  have  been  some  exciting  incidents  among  the 
lights  strung  around  the  south-eastern  toe  of  England. 
The  vessel  outside  Dover  harbour  appears  to  be  particu- 
larly unlucky,  or  to  exercise  such  a  peculiar  magnetism  upon 
passing  vessels  that  they  must  needs  embrace  her.  This 
is  the  peril  that  a  lightship  crew  dreads  more  than  any  other. 
Certainly  it  seems  a  sorry  trick  of  Fortune  that  occasionally 
the  workers  in  the  cause  of  humanity  should  be  compelled  to 
fight  desperately  for  their  lives  from  a  blow  inflicted  by  the 
very  interests  they  strive  might  and  main  to  protect.  The 
Dover  light  was  sent  to  the  bottom  twice  within  a  very 
short  time,  and  in  each  instance  the  men  were  rescued  only 
in  the  nick  of  time.  On  another  occasion  a  relief  lightship 
was  being  towed  to  a  station  on  the  east  coast,  the  acting 
vessel  being  much  in  need  of  overhaul  and  repair.  The 
tug  laboured  through  the  North  Sea  with  her  charge,  and 
just  before  daybreak  sighted  the  twinkling  light  which  was 
her  goal.  She  eased  up,  meaning  to  stand  by  with  her 
charge  until  the  beacon's  round  of  vigilance  should  be  over, 
and  the  light  extinguished  before  the  gathering  dawn.  Her 
crew  saw  the  light  grow  dimmer,  until  it  was  no  longer  of 
sufficient  power  to  penetrate  the  whitening  haze.  With  the 
sun  just  creeping  over  the  horizon  the  tug  weighed  anchor, 
and,  heralding  her  approach  vociferously  on  the  siren, 
steamed  slowly  towards  the  danger  spot.  To  the  surprise 
of  the  captain,  there  came  no  answering  blare.  When  he 
thought  he  was  alongside  the  light-vessel  he  stopped,  and 


246  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

the  haze  lifted.  But  there  was  no  sign  of  the  light-vessel ; 
she  had  vanished  completely.  The  captain  of  the  tug  and 
the  master  of  the  relief-boat  wondered  what  had  happened, 
but  without  more  ado  the  relief-ship  was  moored  in  position, 
and  the  tug  returned  home  empty-handed.  There  the  crew 
heard  one  of  those  grim  stories  sometimes  related  in  the 
service.  The  light-keepers  had  sighted  the  tug  with  the 
relief-vessel,  and  were  anticipating  keenly  their  return  to 
civilization,  when  there  was  a  crash  !  A  cliff  of  steel  reared 
above  them  like  a  knife-edge ;  a  vessel  had  blundered  into 
them,  cutting  their  home  in  two.  The  next  moment  they 
were  shot  pell-mell  into  the  water  as  their  craft  sank  beneath 
their  feet. 

On  a  calm  day,  when  the  lightship  is  riding  quietly  at 
anchor,  and  the  members  of  the  crew,  maybe,  are  beguiling 
the  tedium  by  fishing,  a  passer-by  on  a  liner  is  apt  to  consider 
the  life  one  of  quietness  and  enjoyment,  albeit  monotonous. 
But  contrast  this  placidity  with  the  hours  of  storm.  Then 
the  ungainly  vessel  writhes  and  twists,  saws  and  rasps  at  the 
chains  which  hold  her  prisoner.  At  one  moment,  with  bow 
uplifted,  she  is  on  the  crest  of  a  spray-enveloped  roller ;  the 
next  instant  she  drives  her  dipping  nose  into  the  hissing 
white  and  green  valley,  meanwhile  lurching  and  staggering 
wildly  as  she  ships  a  sea,  first  on  this  side  and  then  on  that. 

The  plight  of  the  lighthouse-keeper  in  a  gale  is  unenviable, 
but  it  is  far  and  away  preferable  to  that  of  the  lightship 
crew  under  similar  circumstances.  The  tower  may  bow 
slightly  like  a  tree  before  the  storm,  and  the  waves  may 
cause  it  to  shiver  at  times,  but  that  is  the  only  movement. 
On  the  lightship  the  crew  appear  to  be  tossed,  rolled,  and 
spun,  in  all  directions  simultaneously.  The  deck  becomes 
untenable,  but  the  men  in  the  performance  of  their  duties 
have  to  grope  and  crawl  from  point  to  point,  holding  on 
grimly  with  both  hands  when  an  angry  sea  douches  them. 
The  spherical  ball  overhead  gyrates  in  an  amazing  manner, 
as  if  it  were  a  pendulum  bob  boxing  the  compass.  The  crew 
have  a  stiff  struggle,  to  keep  everything  below  safe  and 
sound,  while  the  waves,  as  they  come  aboard,  thump  on  the 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS  247 

deck  as  if  determined  to  smash  it  to  splinters,  and  to  drive 
the  whole  fabric  to  the  bottom.  To  be  so  unlucky  as  to  be 
run  down  by  a  passing  craft  under  such  conditions  is  certain 
death,  as  there  is  no  hope  of  rescue  in  such  maddened  seas. 

The  crew  of  an  English  ship  emerged  badly  battered  from 
one  heavy  gale.  Two  or  three  rollers  got  aboard,  and  drove 
their  blows  well  home,  pulverizing  the  lifeboat  on  deck,  and 
tearing  up  stretches  of  the  bulwarks  by  the  roots.  The 
crew  were  flung  about  like  shuttlecocks.  One  of  the  hands 
was  making  his  way  cautiously  along  the  deck,  trying  to 
maintain  equilibrium  upon  an  alarming  incline,  when  a 
breaker  struck  him  from  behind.  He  grabbed  the  ratlins  to 
secure  himself,  but  his  hand  was  wrenched  away,  and  he 
was  flung  against  the  mast,  where  the  wave  left  him.  He 
was  half  stunned  by  the  concussion,  but  a  comrade,  realizing 
his  plight,  dashed  forward  while  the  vessel  rolled  over  in  the 
other  direction,  grabbed  the  prostrate  form  by  the  collar  of 
its  coat,  and  dragged  it  into  the  companion-way.  The  man's 
face  was  disfigured,  and  when  bathed  it  was  found  to  have 
been  cut,  or  rather  burst,  open  from  the  eye  to  the  chin  by 
the  force  of  the  blow. 

Bad  weather  tends  to  make  the  crew  despondent  at 
times,  inasmuch  as  its  persistency  holds  them  prisoners,  so 
that  they  cannot  get  ashore  when  the  relief  day  comes  round. 
During  some  seasons  of  the  year  a  delay  ©f  ten  or  twelve 
days  is  not  uncommon,  owing  to  the  weather,  but  the  men 
on  the  relief  tender  are  so  used  to  hard  knocks  and  rough 
seas  that  they  do  not  wait  for  an  absolute  calm  to  achieve 
their  purpose.  Heavy  risks  are  incurred  often  in  order  to 
lighten  the  lives  of  those  who  guard  the  deep  by  bringing 
them  ashore  as  near  to  the  scheduled  date  as  possible. 

Another  ship  that  has  to  mount  guard  over  a  dangerous 
corner  of  the  coast  of  England  is  that  which  indicates  the 
cluster  of  rocks  lying  between  Land's  End  and  the  Scilly 
Isles,  about  sixteen  miles  off  the  mainland.  For  the  most 
part  the  reef  is  submerged,  but  as  the  water  goes  down  seven 
ugly  scattered  pinnacles  thrust  themselves  into  the  air. 
They  are  terrible  fangs  with  which  to  rip  out  the  bottom  of 


248  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

a  steamer,  and  they  have  accomplished  their  fell  work  only 
too  often.     The  number  of  the  projections  has  given  its 
name  to  the  graveyard,  which  is  known  far  and  wide  as  the      1 
Seven  Stones,  though  the  mariner  refers  to  them  simply 
as  The  Stones. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  say  offhand  which  has  claimed  the 
greater  number  of  victims  from  the  mercantile  marine — the 
sucking,  glue-like  sands  of  the  Goodwins,  or  the  splitting 
granite  teeth  of  the  Seven  Stones  ;  they  run  a  close  race  for 
ill-fame.  The  latter  lie  right  in  the  path  of  vessels  rounding 
the  western  toe  of  England,  and  the  sea-bed  on  all  sides  of 
them  is  littered  with  the  shivered  timbers  of  wooden  sailing- 
ships,  the  splintered  iron  and  steel  of  steamers,  and  the 
bones  of  scores  of  unfortunate  passengers  and  crews. 
Although  a  light  of  12,000  candle-power  strives  to  warn  the 
seafarer,  now  and  again  there  is  a  miscalculation,  and  the 
intimation  is  conveyed  to  the  mainland :  "  Ship  and  all 
hands  lost." 

It  was  in  1841,  owing  to  the  frequency  and  severity  of  the 
disasters  at  this  spot,  that  Trinity  House  decided  to  guard 
it  with  a  lightship.  A  lighthouse  would  be  preferable,  but 
there  is  such  small  foothold  for  the  engineer,  and  the  position 
is  so  fearfully  exposed,  that  the  erection  of  a  masonry  tower 
would  prove  a  costly  and  tedious  enterprise.  So  the  only 
feasible  alternative  was  adopted,  and  the  vessel  is  kept 
abreast  of  modern  developments  in  this  phase  of  coast 
lighting.  Lying  as  it  does  in  a  somewhat  narrow  channel, 
yet  open  to  the  full  roll  of  the  terrible  westerly  gales,  it 
meets  the  Atlantic  thundering  through  this  constricted 
passage  with  awe-inspiring  violence.  It  has  often  suffered 
greatly  from  the  fury  of  the  sea.  Once  a  wave  tumbled 
aboard,  crashed  a  man  against  the  pump,  knocked  him  half 
senseless  ;  picked  up  the  lifeboat  and  threw  it  against  the 
deck-house,  and  in  so  doing  caught  another  member  of  the 
crew,  mauling  his  thigh  badly  in  passing.  Two  out  of  the 
seven  men  forming  the  crew  were  thus  put  hors  de  combat 
by  a  single  wave.  The  taut  little  vessel  rides  in  40  fathoms 
of  water,  about  one  and  a  half  miles  eastward  of  the  danger 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS  249 

spot,  as  even  a  lightship  must  not  be  moored  too  closely  to  a 
ridge,  or  she  herself  would  incur  the  risk  of  being  pounded 
to  fragments. 

The  French  lighthouse  service  has  a  magnificent  lightship 
in  the  Ruytingen,  which  rides  in  60  feet  of  water  over  a 
treacherous  sandbank  outside  Dunkirk.  It  is  a  steel  vessel 
about  100  feet  in  length,  and  displaces  in  loaded  condition 
about  387  tons.  It  is  held  in  position  by  massive  umbrella- 
like anchors,  weighing  some  2  tons,  which,  burying  them- 
selves in  the  ground,  refuse  to  drag  even  under  the  most 
fearful  tugs  and  jerks  imposed  by  a  gale,  while  the  chains 
which  hold  the  ship  in  leash  are  able  to  give  her  a  run  of 
approximately  1,000  feet. 

The  German  coast  is  as  dangerous  to  approach,  owing  to 
the  shoals  and  banks,  as  the  eastern  shores  of  England,  and 
one  or  two  magnificent  lightships  have  been  built  and 
stationed  over  the  most  notorious  danger  areas,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  the  Norderney  and  Eider  vessels. 
The  latter  is  about  133  feet  in  length  by  24  feet  wide,  and  is 
fitted  with  three  masts.  It  throws  a  fixed  white  light,  which 
may  be  seen  on  all  sides  from  eight  to  eleven  miles  away. 
This  boat  is  fitted  with  every  modern  device  to  increase  its 
warning  powers  and  service,  including  wireless  telegraphy 
and  the  submarine  bell. 

These  two  latter  inventions  have  improved  the  service- 
ability of  the  lightship  to  a  vast  degree,  inasmuch  as  the 
ocean  liners  and  many  freighters  are  equipped  with  both 
these  useful  handmaids  to  navigation.  The  tolling  of  the 
bell  under  water  may  be  heard  for  several  miles,  and  conveys 
intimation  of  the  approach  to  danger  in  foggy  weather, 
when  the  siren  or  other  fog-signal  is  somewhat  precarious. 

The  Norderney  lightship  is  probably  one  of  the  finest  craft 
in  operation  upon  the  seven  seas.  Before  it  was  designed 
the  German  engineers  carried  out  a  thorough  inspection  of 
all  the  most  modern  lightships  in  service  in  Europe,  and 
from  the  results  of  their  investigations  contrived  this  mag- 
nificent aid  to  navigation.  The  vessel  is  about  150  feet  in 
length,  and  is  built  of  steel.     The  light  is  shown  from  a 


250  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

lantern  fitted  with  a  third-order  pendular  lens  carried  at 
the  top  of  a  hollow  steel  mast.  The  illuminant  useW  is 
Pintsch's  oil-gas,  with  incandescent  mantle,  the  fuel  being 
stored  in  reservoirs  stowed  in  the  hold  of  the  ship  ;  fresh 
supplies  are  brought  out  by  the  tender  at  periodical  intervals. 
Weight-driven  clockwork  mechanism  is  employed  to  revolve 
the  lantern.  The  light  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  in 
European  waters,  50,000  candle-power  being  emitted  with 
an  incandescent  gas  mantle  having  a  diameter  of  30  milli- 
metres (ij  inches). 

The  vessel  is  also  equipped  with  200  horse-power  oil- 
engines, driving  an  air-compressor  for  the  operation  of  the 
fog-siren,  the  air  being  stored  in  reservoirs  in  the  hold  and 
maintained  at  the  working  pressure,  so  that  the  signal  may 
be  brought  into  service  at  a  moment's  notice.  The  vessel  is 
also  furnished  with  a  Pintsch  submarine  bell,  driven  by 
compressed  air.  When  not  required,  this  bell  is  housed 
amidships  on  the  spar-deck,  and  when  the  occasion  arises 
for  its  service  it  is  lowered  into  the  water  through  an  open 
tube  built  in  the  ship  for  this  purpose.  This  important 
light-vessel  carries  a  full  complement  of  thirteen  men, 
including  the  captain,  mate,  and  engineer.  The  arrange- 
ment is,  one-third  of  the  crew  on  shore-leave  at  a  time ;  but 
this  does  not  apply  to  the  winter  months,  when  the  full 
number  has  to  remain  on  board,  owing  to  the  duties  being 
more  arduous  and  continuous  during  that  season  of  the 
year. 

"  Fire  Island  !"  What  a  thrill  the  sound  of  this  name 
sends  through  the  floating  town  approaching  the  New  World 
from  Europe.  Its  effect  is  magical  among  the  emigrants 
who  scan  the  horizon  eagerly  for  the  first  glimpse  of  this  out- 
post of  the  new  home,  in  which  all  their  hopes  are  centred. 
The  sullen  red  hull  of  this  flush-deck,  schooner-rigged  steam- 
vessel,  with  her  two  masts,  and  name  painted  in  huge  white 
letters  on  her  flanks,  rides  in  96  feet  of  water,  nine  and  three- 
eighth  miles  south  of  Fire  Island  lighthouse.  A  few  miles 
beyond  is  a  similar  craft  marking  the  Nantucket  Shoals, 
whence  incoming  and  outgoing  vessels  are  reported,  while 


^l 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS  251 

the  end  of  the  chain  is  "No.  B>y,"  marking  the  Ambrose 
Channel  off  the  entrance  to  New  York. 

But  the  light-vessel  controlled  by  the  United  States 
which  occupies  the  most  responsible  and  perilous  post  is 
the  Diamond  Shoal,  off  Cape  Hatteras.  It  throws  its  warning 
rays  from  a  spot  about  four  and  five-eighth  miles  beyond  the 
most  seaward  point  of  this  terrible  ocean  graveyard,  and  is 
thirteen  and  five-eighth  miles  distant  from  Cape  Hatteras 
light  on  the  mainland.  A  long  way  from  the  actual  danger 
spot,  you  say,  but  the  little  squad  of  men  who  have  to 
maintain  the  light  through  storm  and  calm  will  tell  you  that 
the  situation,  in  180  feet  of  water,  is  quite  as  near  as  is 
pleasant  when  there  is  the  ever-present  danger  of  anchors 
being  dragged,  or  of  the  craft  breaking  adrift  under  the 
force  of  the  cyclonic  disturbances  which  ravage  this  sinister 
coast.  Even  in  calm  weather  the  relief-boat  has  many 
anxious  moments,  owing  to  the  swell  and  currents,  while 
storms  rise  with  startling  suddenness.  While  the  exchange 
of  men  is  being  made  and  stores  are  being  transferred,  a  keen 
lookout  is  kept  by  the  relief-boat  hands  so  as  to  be  ready  to 
cut  and  run  for  the  open  sea  the  moment  the  clouds  begin  to 
collect  ominously.  In  these  latitudes  the  weather  is  placid 
one  minute  ;  the  next  the  elements  are  writhing  in  fury. 

Probably  this  is  the  most  dangerous  station  on  the  whole 
seaboard,  and  if  any  heavy  trouble  is  caused  by  the  tempest, 
the  Diamond  Shoal  inevitably  bears  grim  evidence  of  the 
conflict.  The  skill  of  the  engineers  is  taxed  sorely  to  devise 
Ways  and  means  of  keeping  the  vessel  in  the  position  she  is 
designed  to  occupy,  but  moorings  and  anchors  must  be  of 
great  weight  and  strength  to  stand  up  against  a  wind  blowing 
eighty  miles  an  hour,  with  the  waves  running  "  mountains 
high  "  and  repeatedly  sweeping  the  vessel  from  stem  to 
stern.  After  every  battle  a  careful  look  round  has  to  be 
made  to  determine  how  far  the  vessel  has  shifted.  Being 
steam-driven,  this  craft  is  not  condemned  to  absolute  help- 
lessness when  her  moorings  snap.  The  crew  get  her  under 
control  and  keep  her  head  pointed  in  the  desired  direction, 
so  as  to  mitigate  the  battering  of  the  wind  and  waves,  and 


252  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

not  moving  more  than  is  essential  for  safety.  Subsequently 
the  vessel  crawls  back  to  her  position,  the  bearings  are 
taken,  and  she  is  anchored  firmly  once  more. 

One  hurricane  swept  Cape  Hatteras,  and  the  lightship 
received  its  full  energy.  The  boat  strained  and  groaned  at 
her  chains.  Suddenly  they  snapped.  No  steam  could  hold 
the  boat  against  the  assault.  She  was  picked  up,  thrown 
about  like  an  empty  box,  and  carried  inshore,  luckily  missing 
the  ridges  of  sand.  Had  she  plumped  into  one,  it  would  have 
gripped  her  tightly  while  the  waves  pounded  her  to  frag- 
ments. The  crew  were  helpless  and  could  only  wonder  what 
the  end  would  be,  as  they  saw  the  rugged  coastline  approach 
nearer  and  nearer.  When  they  thought  all  was  over  and  that 
their  fate  was  sealed,  a  big  incoming  wave  snatched  the  light- 
ship, hurried  her  along  on  its  bosom,  and  dropped  her  on  the 
beach,  practically  uninjured,  and  safe  from  further  attack. 

When  the  crew  surveyed  their  position,  they  found  them- 
selves faced  with  a  difficult  proposition.  The  ship  Was  safe 
and  sound,  but  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  shoals,  and  the 
question  was  how  to  lift  her  over  those  greedy  ridges.  There 
was  only  one  method.  That  was  to  dig  a  pit  around  her  on 
the  beach,  let  in  the  water  so  that  she  could  float,  and  then 
to  cut  a  wide  deep  trench  out  to  sea  so  as  to  regain  deep 
water.  It  was  feasible,  and  was  attempted.  While  the 
pond  on  the  beach  was  being  dug,  a  powerful  dredger  came 
up,  and  ploughed  its  way  through  the  shoals  from  deep  water 
to  the  stranded  light-vessel.  When  the  craft  was  once  more 
afloat,  the  dredger  carved  its  way  back  again,  the  light- 
vessel  being  taken  through  the  narrow,  shallow  ditch  thus 
provided,  which  was  closed  up  by  the  running  sand  as  the 
two  boats  crept  slowly  forward,  until  at  last  the  shoals  were 
negotiated.  The  ship  was  taken  to  headquarters,  the  relief - 
vessel,  which  is  always  kept  ready  for  an  emergency,  having 
taken  up  her  position  on  the  station  immediately  the 
hurricane  had  blown  itself  out. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  will  be  realized  that  the 
maintenance  of  the  Diamond  Shoal  light  is  by  no  means  a 
sinecure.     When  these  adversities  are  aggravated  by  the 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS         253 

relief-boat  being  unable  to  fulfil  its  scheduled  duty,  when 
week  after  week  slips  by  without  the  men  receiving  the 
welcome  spell  ashore,  while  they  are  suffering  privations 
and  experiencing  the  nerve-shattering  pangs  of  isolation  and 
monotony,  it  is  not  surprising  that  despondency  shows  signs 
of  getting  the  upper  hand  among  the  crew.  Melancholia  is 
the  malady  which  is  feared  most  on  a  light-vessel  such  as 
this,  and  the  men  have  to  pull  themselves  together  to  resist 
its  insidious  grip.  Probably  at  times  there  is  half  an  inclina- 
tion to  desert  the  light,  but  fortunately  there  is  little  fear  of 
this  temptation  succeeding.  The  axiom  "  Never  abandon  the 
light "  is  too  deeply  rooted ;  besides,  the  men  are  safer  where 
they  are,  although  it  appears  a  crazy  refuge  in  rough  weather. 

Prolonged  imprisonment  on  the  Diamond  Shoal  precipi- 
tated one  mutiny.  The  crew  on  duty  were  av/aiting  the 
arrival  of  the  reserve  vessel  to  take  them  home  ;  but  the 
weather  disposed  otherwise.  With  that  inexplicable  per- 
sistence, the  wind  got  round  to  a  rough  quarter  and  kept 
there  tenaciously,  never  moderating  for  a  few  hours,  but 
just  blowing,  blowing,  blowing,  getting  up  a  nasty  sea  which 
made  the  lightship  reel  and  tumble,  while  at  intervals  a 
comber  came  aboard  to  flush  the  decks. 

In  the  course  of  ten  days  or  so  the  crew  began  to  fret  and 
fume  at  the  obstinacy  of  the  elements  ;  when  a  month  slipped 
by  without  bringing  any  welcome  relief,  the  mate  and  the 
engineer  incurred  the  captain's  dire  displeasure  by  frater- 
nizing and  playing  cards  with  the  crew,  thereby  creating  a 
breach  of  discipline  and  etiquette.  The  offenders,  some- 
what overwrought  by  their  continued  incarceration,  ignored 
the  captain's  reprimand.  This  arrant  disobedience  played 
upon  his  nerves,  which  similarly  were  strung  up.  It  did  not 
require  a  very  big  spark  to  start  a  conflagration  of  tempers. 
The  mate  and  engineer  brooded  over  the  captain's  remarks, 
and  at  last  they  waited  upon  him,  forcibly  ventilated  their 
opinions  concerning  his  lack  of  civility  and  of  endeavours  to 
make  one  and  all  comfortable  under  the  trying  circum- 
stances, and  expressed  their  determination  to  tolerate  his 
overbearing  manner  no  longer.     This  Was  the  last  straw 


254  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

from  the  captain's  point  of  view.  Drawing  his  revolver,  he 
growled  that  he  was  master  of  the  lightship,  and  that  they 
would  have  to  do  as  he  told  them.  There  was  a  tussle,  but 
the  firearm  was  wrenched  away  from  the  master's  hands  as 
being  a  somewhat  too  dangerous  tool  for  a  man  in  his  over- 
strung condition.  The  crew  naturally  sided  with  the 
officers,  and  the  captain  was  kept  under  surveillance  until 
the  relief -vessel  came  up  some  weeks  later. 

The  moment  the  crew  stepped  on  dry  land,  every  man, 
with  the  exception  of  the  mate,  deserted  the  ship,  thoroughly 
satiated  with  the  uncertainty  pertaining  to  watching  the 
Diamond  Shoals.  They  indulged  in  a  hearty  carousal,  and 
were  arrested.  And  the  captain,  who  also  was  not  averse  to 
enjoyment  on  shore,  having  lodged  the  charge  of  mutiny, 
followed  their  example.  An  inquiry  was  held,  and  the  sequel 
is  interesting.  The  captain,  having  deserted  his  ship  upon 
reaching  port,  was  dismissed  from  the  service  ;  the  mate, 
who  had  provoked  the  captain,  not  only  was  acquitted  of  the 
grave  charge,  but  was  promoted  to  the  command  of  the  light- 
vessel,  because  there  was  one  outstanding  feature  in  his  favour 
which  negatived  everything  else — he  had  stuck  to  his  post. 

Life  on  a  lightship,  although  somewhat  strenuous,  has 
its  interludes.  In  fine  weather  the  men  have  considerable 
time  on  their  hands,  and  while  away  the  hours  in  various 
occupations.  Fretwork,  mat-making,  carpentering,  and  other 
hobbies,  are  followed  with  keen  enjoyment.  Owing  to  the 
light  attracting  flocks  of  birds  during  the  migratory  seasons, 
the  men  often  effect  valuable  captures  on  the  deck,  rare 
songsters  and  other  specimens  falling  exhausted  into  their 
hands.  Cages  are  contrived,  and  the  silence  of  the  living- 
quarters  is  relieved  by  the  piping  and  trilling  of  the  birds 
when  once  they  have  shaken  down  to  their  captivity. 
Meteorological  work,  which  is  practised  in  some  cases, 
relieves  the  round  of  toil,  while  contributions  to  science  are 
made  by  investigating  the  depths  of  the  sea  and  its  bed  with 
small  trawls  and  other  devices,  so  as  to  secure  data  con- 
cerning life  in  the  deep,  the  vagaries  of  currents,  submarine 
temperatures,  and  so  forth. 


THE  SIGNPOSTS  OF  THE  SANDBANKS  255 

The  lightship,  however,  is  both  a  safeguard  and  a  menace. 
When  she  is  riding  quietly  at  the  end  of  her  chains  she  is  an 
incalculable  boon  to  the  passing  mariner,  but  after  a  gale 
the  navigator  and  the  light-keepers  are  suspicious.  The 
boat  may,  and  indeed  probably  has,  dragged  her  anchors 
somewhat.  Now,  the  seafarer  on  his  chart  has  the  precise 
position. which  the  lightship  should  occupy.  Consequently, 
if  she  has  shifted  and  he  is  unaware  of  the  error,  his  calcula- 
tions will  lead  him  astray.  After  a  tempest  the  master  of  a 
lightship  endeavours  to  ascertain  if  his  craft  has  moved, 
and  if  he  can  he  takes  his  bearings  at  once.  If  this  is  im- 
possible, or  if  he  entertains  any  doubt  in  his  mind,  he  flies  a 
signal,  which  warns  the  navigator  that  the  lightship  has 
moved.  Unless  the  vessel  is  able  to  regain  her  station  under 
her  own  steam,  she  communicates  with  the  shore  at  once, 
and  a  boat  is  sent  out  to  reset  her.  Every  time  the  relief  is 
effected  the  officer  in  charge  takes  the  bearings,  so  that  the 
lightship  may  be  truly  in  the  position  she  is  intended  to 
assume,  and  able  to  effect  her  humane  work  satisfactorily. 

The  evolution  of  the  most  efficient  illuminating  apparatus 
for  the  lightship  has  been  a  most  perplexing  problem  to  the 
lighthouse  engineer.  What  is  applicable  for  the  masonry 
tower  is  not  necessarily  adapted  to  its  floating  contemporary, 
since  the  conditions  are  so  dissimilar.  The  United  States 
service  has  adopted  electric  lighting  on  all  its  steam-driven 
vessels,  the  current  being  easily  obtainable  in  this  instance. 
On  the  whole,  however,  oil  is  the  most  popular  form  of 
illuminant,  the  burners — there  are  several  lamps  arranged 
in  a  ring  round  the  mast — being  fitted  with  two  circular 
wicks,  one  within  the  other ;  while  behind  the  lamp  an 
ordinary  parabolic  reflector  is  placed  in  order  to  increase  the 
intensity  of  the  light  produced.  These  reflectors  are  dis- 
posed in  such  a  manner  around  the  mast  that  the  concen- 
trated beam  of  light  from  one  lamp  just  overlaps  the  rays 
which  are  projected  similarly  from  the  lamp  placed  on  either 
side,  the  result  being  that  a  fixed  white  light  of  equal 
luminosity  throughout  the  circle  is  projected.  But,  unlike 
the  illuminant  in  the  lighthouse,  the  light  is  not  stationary 


256  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

in  its  vertical  plane ;  it  is  swung  from  side  to  side  and  up  and 
down  in  rhythm  with  the  movement  of  the  vessel.  Under 
these  circumstances,  at  one  moment  the  light  would  project 
a  short  ray  owing  to  the  declination  of  the  beam  in  relation 
to  the  line  of  the  water,  thereby  bringing  it  below  the 
horizon,  while  the  next  moment,  when  the  ship  lurched  in 
the  opposite  direction,  the  ray  of  light  would  be  thrown  into 
the  air  and  above  the  horizon.  The  problem  is  to  keep  the 
light  at  one  steady  angle,  irrespective  of  the  motion  of  the 
vessel,  and  this  end  is  achieved  by  hanging  each  reflector 
upon  gimbals,  so  that  the  rolling  practically  is  counteracted, 
the  reflectors  maintaining  a  constant  vertical  position. 

Some  lights  are  of  the  flashing  type,  and  in  this  instance 
the  reflectors  are  disposed  in  groups.  Here  the  gimbals, 
carrying  the  reflectors,  are  mounted  upon  the  framework 
which  revolves  around  the  mast  by  clockwork  mechanism, 
and  are  so  arranged  as  to  give  any  type  of  distinguishing 
flash  that  may  be  desired.  In  the  most  approved  types  of 
modern  lightships,  however,  the  dioptric  apparatus  is 
incorporated,  means  having  been  discovered  to  avoid 
breakage  from  the  rolling  motion  of  the  ship,  while  the  risk 
of  throwing  the  beam  above  or  below  the  horizon  according 
to  the  rolling  of  the  boat  is  overcome.  In  this  case  the  lamps 
and  reflectors  are  disposed  on  a  turntable  in  the  lantern,  with 
the  dioptric  apparatus  mounted  very  carefully  so  as  to  secure 
a  true  balance  upon  gimbals.  The  apparatus  for  revolving 
the  light  is  erected  in  a  deck-house,  the  weight  actuating  the 
mechanism  being  permitted  to  rise  and  fall  in  a  special  tube 
extending  from  the  bottom  of  the  ship  to  the  deck.  The 
rotary  action  thus  produced  is  transmitted  from  the  deck 
to  the  lantern  above  by  means  of  a  vertical  shaft  and  pinion. 
While  ordinary  lamps  are  installed  as  a  rule  in  the  lanterns, 
Messrs.  Chance  Brothers  and  Co.,  the  Birmingham  light- 
house illuminating  engineers,  have  succeeded  in  adapting 
their  incandescent  oil-vapour  system,  which  has  proved  so 
eminently  successful  in  lighthouses,  to  light-vessels,  with  a 
very  decided  increase  in  the  candle-power,  and  marked 
econom.y  in  oil  consumption  and  cost  of  upkeep. 


CHAPTER  XX 

A  FLAMING  SENTINEL  OF  THE  MALACCA  STRAITS 

With  the  development  of  commerce  between  Europe, 
China,  and  Japan,  following  the  awakening  of  the  East, 
it  became  imperative  to  render  the  seas  approaching  these 
countries  far  safer  to  navigation.  If  one  consults  the  atlas, 
and  follows  the  routes  taken  by  the  great  liners  from  Britain 
and  the  Continent  to  the  Orient,  he  will  see  a  rampart  form- 
ing the  boundary  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  South 
China  Sea.  This  is  the  East  Indian  Archipelago,  and  it 
bristles  with  dangers  of  all  descriptions  to  the  mercantile 
traffic  flowing  to  and  fro.  After  leaving  India,  the  steam- 
ships turn  their  noses  towards  Singapore,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula  ;  but  this  busy  port  is  shut  in  on  the 
south  by  the  attenuated  rocky  chain  of  islands  forming  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  of  which  Sumatra  and  Java  are  the  most 
important. 

The  steamship  lane  lies  between  Sumatra  and  the  Asian 
mainland,  and  is  known  as  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  It  is  a 
fearsome  neck  of  water,  studded  with  islands  and  sand- 
banks, some  visible  above  high-water,  others  revealed  only 
by  the  falling  tide  ;  while  still  more  never  see  daylight  at  all, 
yet  owing  to  their  shallow  position  are  none  the  less  perilous. 

In  order  to  foster  the  growth  of  the  sea-traffic  with  China, 
these  unattractive  waters  demanded  full  illumination, 
while  the  rock-girt  shores  of  China  and  Japan  were  similarly 
in  need  of  protective  outposts.  Japan  was  particularly 
enterprising  in  this  forward  movement.  The  country  was 
emerging  from  the  state  of  suspended  civilization  in  which 
it  had  reposed  so  calmly  for  centuries.  The  rising  forces 
were  not  slow  to  realize  that  unless  they  safeguarded 
steamship    traffic  their  ports  would  wait  in  vain  for  the 

257  17 


258  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

ships  from  Europe.  In  fact,  the  mercantile  interests  of  the 
Western  world  bluntly  stated  that  unless  this  course  were 
followed  their  ships  would  not  come  to  trade. 

Japan  at  that  time  had  not  capable  men  at  home  for  the 
purpose  of  completing  the  first  part  of  a  comprehensive 
coast-lighting  scheme,  and  it  was  acknowledged  that  years 
must  elapse  before  the  country  would  be  able  to  walk  alone 
in  this  field.  Accordingly  they  sought  Britain's  assistance. 
The  Stevenson  family,  as  narrated  already,  elaborated  a 
comprehensive  scheme,  which  was  accepted.  The  struc- 
tures were  prepared  in  Britain,  sent  out  piecemeal  to  Japan 
together  with  a  force  of  competent  men,  and  erected  at 
the  desired  points. 

Upon  this  foundation  the  Japanese  built  up  their  excellent 
lighthouse  service.  The  Eastern  pupil,  in  his  own  estima- 
tion, became  as  competent  as  the  Scottish  teachers.  At  all 
events,  Japan  has  since  completed  all  works  of  this  descrip- 
tion at  home  and  unaided.  China  followed  suit,  but  in 
this  instance  it  was  due  to  British  initiative  purely  and 
simply.  The  British  Inspector-General  of  the  Imperial 
Maritime  Customs  took  up  the  question.  He  appointed  an 
engineer-in-chief,  to  whom  the  construction  and  repair  of 
the  lights  were  entrusted.  The  chief  engineer  was  provided 
with  a  coast  inspector,  upon  whom  devolved  the  responsi- 
bility for  the  personnel  and  the  maintenance  of  the  stations, 
he  in  turn  being  assisted  in  his  exacting  and,  at  that  time, 
difficult  work  by  a  corps  of  zealous  officers. 

Although  the  countries  concerned  and  the  shipping  com- 
panies of  Europe  appreciated  this  forward  policy,  one  class 
of  individuals  resented  this  introduction  of  Western  ideas 
into  Oriental  life.  This  was  the  population  who  lived  by 
wrecking  and  piracy.  They  recognized  the  fact  only  too 
well,  that,  if  brilliant  beacons  were  to  be  permitted  to  be 
erected  freely  throughout  these  troublous  seas,  their  despic- 
able but  remunerative  calling  would  cease.  Their  solution 
of  the  problem  assumed  a  characteristic  Chinese  and  Malay 
form  ;  they  endeavoured  to  wreak  their  revenge  upon  the 
lights.     Now  and  again  there  were  sharp  tussles  between 


A  FLAMING  SENTINEL  OF  MALACCA  STRAITS    259 

the  engineering  staffs  and  these  high -water  brigands,  but 
firearms  well  handled  by  the  white  men  invariably  got  the 
better  of  the  argument.  Pirates  caught  in  the  attempt  to 
tamper  with  the  lights  received  very  short  shrift.  One 
engineer  who  had  seen  service  in  these  waters  related  to  me 
that  in  the  early  days  the  amount  of  lead  expended  in  pro- 
tecting a  light  from  these  marauders  exceeded  the  quantity 
of  this  metal  used  in  the  tower  itself. 

The  Malacca  Straits,  from  their  exceedingly  dangerous 
nature,  constituted  a  happy  hunting-ground  for  these 
gentlemen,  and  the  lighting  of  these  waters  was  effected  as 
soon  as  possible.  Among  the  innumerable  menaces  abound- 
ing, a  shoal  some  sixteen  miles  west  of  the  coastline  was  par- 
ticularly harassing  to  mariners.  It  became  known  as  One 
Fathom  Bank,  and  the  shallowest  part  was  only  about 
18  feet  below  the  surface  at  high-water.  When  these 
waters  were  guarded  first,  a  lightship  did  duty  ;  but  the 
position  is  so  open,  and  is  so  exposed  to  the  full  fury  of 
the  monsoon,  that  she  frequently  dragged  her  anchors,  so 
that  the  warning  became  somewhat  uncertain. 
■  Accordingly,  it  was  decided  to  supersede  the  floating 
light  by  a  permanent  structure,  and  a  lighthouse  on  stilts, 
similar  to  those  familiar  to  American  waters,  was  erected 
in  1874,  and  emitted  a  white  flash  once  a  minute.  Although 
this  ironwork  structure  was  pounded  mercilessly  by  the 
seas,  it  withstood  all  assaults  completely,  and  was  only 
superseded  eventually  owing  to  the  ever-increasing  exigen- 
cies of  commerce,  which  demanded  a  more  powerful  and 
elevated  light. 

The  present  tower  was  commenced  in  1907.  The  engineers 
appreciated  the  fact  that  they  were  being  called  upon  to 
carry  out  an  undertaking  in  an  especially  trying  position. 
The  bank  is  well  out  to  sea,  and  when  the  monsoon  is  in 
full  blast  waves  8  feet  in  height  thunder  upon  the  shoal, 
their  ferocity  varying  according  to  the  state  of  the  tide, 
which  rises  and  falls  a  matter  of  14  feet.  The  difficulties 
attending  the  building  of  the  Rothersand  and  Fourteen  Foot 
Bank  lighthouses  under  closely  similar  conditions  were  not 


26o  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

forgotten,  and  the  prospect  of  building  a  huge  caisson  on 
the  mainland,  and  then  towing  it  to  the  site  to  be  sunk, 
was  by  no  means  attractive,  even  if  the  fullest  avail  were 
taken  of  the  spells  of  calmest  weather. 

Therefore  an  alternative  method  of  construction,  possess- 
ing the  qualities  of  being  simpler,  quicker,  and  less  ex- 
pensive, which  was  advanced  by  a  well-known  firm  of 
engineers  in  Singapore,  Messrs.  Hargreaves,  Riley  and  Co., 
upon  the  designs  of  Mr.  O.  P.  Thomas,  received  the  closest 
consideration.  This  scheme  proposed  a  lighthouse  con- 
structed on  piles,  with  the  focal  plane  ga-g-  feet  above  water- 
level,  wrought  in  ferro-concrete. 

The  project  was  somewhat  novel  and  daring,  because, 
although  this  constructive  principle  had  been  adopted 
previously  for  stations  upon  the  mainland,  it  had  never  been 
utilized  in  connection  with  exposed  sea-lights.  The  system 
recommended  was  that  known  as  the  Hennebique,  which 
had  been  employed  extensively  for  buildings,  bridges,  sea- 
defences,  and  other  works.  The  proposal  was  investigated 
thoroughly  by  the  Hon.  A.  Murray,  M.Inst.C.E.,  the  Colonial 
Engineer  and  Surveyor-General  for  the  Straits  Settlements, 
and,  as  it  met  with  his  full  approval,  the  work  was  handed 
over  to  the  Singapore  engineers  to  fulfil  upon  the  lines 
advanced. 

The  structure  comprises  the  main  building,  including 
the  living-quarters,  supported  upon  piles  disposed  in  two 
rings,  an  inner  and  an  outer,  about  a  central  pile,  the  whole 
•being  well  braced  together.  The  shape  is  octagonal  in  plan. 
From  the  roof  of  the  living-quarters,  to  which  point  the 
outer  piles  are  carried  vertically  from  the  sea-bed,  these 
members  rise  with  an  inward  rake,  forming  an  octagonal 
pyramid,  with  the  lantern  and  its  room  below  forming  the 
apex. 

The  underwater  work  was  the  most  difficult,  owing  to 
the  situation  and  the  climatic  conditions.  Seeing  that  the 
nearest  land  is  sixteen  miles  distant,  it  was  impossible  to 
carry  the  men  to  and  from  the  scene  of  their  labours  every 
day  when  the  weather  permitted.     A  base  was  established 


A  FLAMING  SENTINEL  OF  MALACCA  STRAITS    261 

on  the  coast  for  the  preparation  of  materials  and  as  a  point 
for  shipping  all  requirements  to  the  site,  but  the  men  were 
accommodated  with  special  facilities  upon  the  spot.  Here 
a  temporary  staging  was  built  on  piles,  on  which  platform 
a  large  hut  was  erected  to  provide  quarters  for  the  men,  as 
well  as  a  workshop. 

The  piles  forming  the  main  support  to  the  building  were 
made  50^  feet  long,  and  hollow.  The  concrete,  composed 
of  broken  granite  and  Portland  cement,  encased  a  steel 
skeleton,  consisting  of  four  longitudinal  round  steel  rods, 
I J  inches  in  diameter,  laid  at  the  corners,  and  laced  together 
with  steel  wire  A  inch  thick.  Eight  of  these  piles  were 
made  18  inches  square,  while  nine  were  24  inches  square, 
and  each  was  fitted  with  a  pointed  end  to  facilitate  driving 
into  the  sea-bed. 

As  these  piles  were  prepared  on  shore,  their  transference 
to  the  site  was  a  pretty  problem  in  itself.  Ordinary  methods 
of  transport  were  impracticable.  The  engineer  overcame 
the  difficulty  in  an  ingenious  manner.  He  built  up  a  raft 
of  barrels,  twenty-six  of  which  were  lashed  together  in 
two  rows,  between  which  the  pile  was  laid  flat  and  evenly. 
The  raft  Was  built  upon  peculiar  lines,  so  as  to  facilitate  the 
unshipping  of  the  pile  when  it  reached  its  destination.  It 
was  divided  into  four  sections,  each  of  which  could  be 
detached  without  disturbing  the  other  three  parts.  The 
raft  and  its  pile  were  towed  out  to  sea  by  a  steamer,  and 
when  the  work  was  gained  the  raft  was  cast  off,  to  be  floated 
under  the  staging  and  to  the  exact  point  where  it  was  to  be 
set  up.  A  chain  sling  was  lowered  from  the  platform  and 
attached  to  the  head  of  the  pile,  and  the  lashings  to  the 
first  section  of  the  raft  were  released,  thus  permitting  the 
strapped  barrels  concerned  to  float  away  and  to  be  recovered. 
The  pile  was  then  slowly  and  carefully  hoisted  at  the  head, 
the  second  part  of  the  raft  being  released  when  the  pile  had 
gained  a  certain  height.  This  procedure  was  repeated  until 
finally,  when  the  last  part  of  the  raft  was  freed,  the  pile 
hung  free,  as  vertically  true  as  a  plumb-line,  with  the  pointed 
foot  resting  on  the  sand.     In  order  to  send  it  truly  into  the 


262  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

sea-bed,  heavy  timber  guides  were  set  up,  and  as  the  pile 
descended  it  was  frequently  tested  with  the  plummet,  to 
see  that  it  was  sinking  in  an  absolutely  perpendicular 
manner. 

The  piles  were  sunk  into  the  soft  sea-bed  by  means  of 
water-jets,  which,  playing  about  the  foot  of  the  pile, 
burrowed  a  hole  into  which  it  could  move  downwards.  A 
depth  of  15  feet  had  been  considered  necessary  to  secure 
the  desired  rigidity,  and  as  a  rule  the  pile  could  be  driven 
to  this  depth  in  about  four  hours.  When  the  pile-driving 
commenced,  however,  it  was  found  that  the  sandbank  had 
undergone  a  marked  change  since  the  surveys  were  made. 
Erosion  had  been  very  active  owing  to  the  currents  having 
been  checked  by  the  obstructions  which  the  legs  of  the 
staging  offered.  Under  these  circumstances  a  novel  experi- 
ment was  made  upon  the  site.  One  of  the  piles  was  length- 
ened by  14I-  feet,  to  be  driven  to  its  limits,  just  to  ascertain 
how  far  it  would  go  into  the  sand.  This  in  itself  was  a 
somewhat  daring  undertaking,  seeing  that  the  tiny  colony 
on  the  staging  did  not  possess  the  facilities  which  were 
available  on  shore  for  the  work.  However,  it  was  accom- 
plished satisfactorily,  and  when  the  pile  was  sunk  it  was 
found  to  descend  another  i^^  feet,  where  it  touched  hard 
rock.  This  discovery  brought  about  a  modification  in  the 
plans.  As  a  solid  foundation  could  be  gained  at  a  depth 
of  28^  feet,  and  as  the  piles  could  be  lengthened  successfully 
upon  the  site,  it  was  decided  to  extend  all  the  piles  to  a 
complete  length  of  64!^  feet,  and  to  drive  them  down  to  the 
hard  bottom.  When  the  piles  were  all  lowered,  they  were 
subjected  to  four  blows  from  a  "  monkey "  weighing 
2^  tons,  dropped  from  a  height  of  4  feet.  But  these  four 
final  blows  only  drove  the  piles  from  J  to  f  inch  farther 
into  the  sea-bed,  whereas,  according  to  the  specification, 
a  margin  of  i  inch  was  allowed  for  this  test. 

The  diameter  of  the  tower  at  the  base  is  40  feet,  and  heavy 
bracing  is  introduced  at  a  point  4  feet  below  high-water  to 
hold  the  fabric  together,  and  to  supply  the  requisite  strength 
and  rigidity.     At   a  height   of  21   feet   above   this  main 


!!'  r'TT 


COMPLETING  THE   ONE    FATHOM    BANK    LIGHTHOUSE    IN   THE   MALACCA  STRAITS. 
The  keepers  live  on  the  lower  floors.     The  upper  floor  beneath  the  lantern  is  the  service  room. 


A  FLAMING  SENTINEL  OF  MALACCA  STRAITS     263 

bracing  is  the  floor  of  the  superstructure,  comprising  an 
octagonal  two-floor  building,  surrounded  by  an  overhanging 
gallery,  built  on  the  cantilever  principle,  5  feet  in  width, 
which  forms  the  landing  platform.  The  two  floors  have  a 
total  height  of  24  feet,  and  constitute  the  keepers'  home. 
The  roof  is  flat,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  collection  and 
conduct  of  rain-water  into  two  ferro-concrete  cisterns,  each 
holding  1,000  gallons.  The  lower  floor  is  devoted  to  housing 
stores,  oil,  etc.,  while  the  upper  story  forms  the  living- 
quarters.  The  roof  is  caused  to  overhang  a  distance  of 
4  feet  on  all  sides,  thereby  providing  a  flat  surface  44  feet 
across.  From  this  point  the  eight  main  columns  of  the 
building  slope  inwards,  until,  at  a  height  of  30  feet,  they 
have  a  diameter  of  i8|-  feet,  where  the  lantern  is  introduced. 
The  lower  part  of  the  latter  constitutes  the  service-room, 
and  leads  directly  to  the  lantern  above.  Access  to  the 
different  levels  is  afforded  by  means  of  a  teak-wood  stair- 
case, while  that  leading  from  the  entrance  floor  to  the  water 
for  landing  purposes  is  hinged,  so  that  it  may  be  accom- 
modated to  the  condition  of  the  tide. 

The  lantern,  which  weighs  ly^  tons,  is  of  the  modern 
type,  and  is  more  powerful  than  that  of  the  1874  light,  which 
it  displaced.  The  white  light  is  thrown  in  groups  of  flashes 
every  fifteen  seconds,  and  the  warning  is  visible  from  the 
deck  of  a  vessel  some  fifteen  miles  away.  The  central  pier, 
which  carries  a  great  proportion  of  the  total  weight  of  the 
tower,  and  which  extends  continuously  from  the  bed-rock 
foundation  to  the  lantern-room,  is  solid  to  the  roof  of  the 
living-quarters.  Above  this  point  it  is  hollow,  having  a 
bore  of  12  inches,  and  in  this  space  the  weight  actuating 
the  revolving  mechanism  of  the  light  moves  up  and 
down. 

Although  the  idea  was  novel  at  the  time,  the  complete 
success  of  the  work  justified  the  recommendations  of  the 
designers  as  to  the  suitability  of  this  form  of  construction 
for  open-sea  lighthouses.  In  this  instance  the  enterprise 
not  only  was  completed  for  a  less  sum  than  would  have  been 
required  for  a  corresponding  lighthouse  erected  in  masonry 


264  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

upon  orthodox  lines,  but  the  structure  is  lighter,  was  more 
rapidly  built,  and  is  thoroughly  hygienic.  The  complete 
weight  of  the  whole  tower  is  less  than  1,000  tons  ;  and  from 
the  setting  of  the  first  pile  to  the  lighting  of  the  lamps  only 
fourteen  months  elapsed,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
work  was  interrupted  and  hindered  frequently  by  inclement 
weather.  Any  doubts  that  were  entertained  concerning 
the  ability  of  the  structure  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  wind 
and  seas  encountered  in  these  latitudes  was  dispelled  during 
erection,  because  the  monsoons  which  broke  during  the 
period  of  erection  were  abnormally  heavy,  and  submitted 
the  fabric  to  exceptional  strains  and  stresses,  which  it  with- 
stood with  complete  success. 

Another  fine  light  which  has  been  provided  for  the  benefit 
of  the  navigator  in  these  Eastern  seas  is  that  on  Gap  Rock. 
This  is  a  rugged,  lofty  eminence,  rising  from  the  sea,  thirty- 
two  miles  south  of  Hong-Kong.  Being  exposed  on  all  sides, 
it  is  difficult  to  approach,  while  at  the  same  time  it  lies  in  the 
path  of  vessels.  A  few  years  ago  the  Hong-Kong  Govern- 
ment decided  to  conquer  this  islet,  and  to  deprive  it  of  its 
perils  to  shipping.  With  great  effort  a  landing  was  effected, 
and  one  of  the  pinnacles  was  decapitated  and  levelled  off, 
to  form  a  spacious  platform  for  landing.  The  light  itself 
rises  from  the  highest  point  of  the  rock,  and  its  rays  are 
visible  through  a  circle  of  twenty  miles  radius.  The  Gap 
Rock  light  is  also  a  signal-station,  being  in  telegraphic 
communication  with  Hong-Kong. 

Although  the  days  of  human  hostility  to  the  lighthouse 
in  Eastern  waters  have  passed,  the  engineer  is  confronted 
by  an  enemy  which  is  in  every  way  as  destructive.  This 
is  the  white  ant.  The  ravages  of  this  insect  are  so  relentless 
and  complete  where  wood  is  concerned  that  timber  towers 
are  quite  impracticable.  Moreover,  this  material  has  to  be 
used  only  sparingly  for  fittings,  even  in  masonry  and  iron 
buildings. 

A  curious  experience  with  this  insidious  and  implacable 
foe  was  related  to  me  by  a  lighthouse  engineer.  He  was 
engaged  in  the  erection  of  a  new  beacon  at  a  remote  point 


A  FLAMING  SENTINEL  OF  MALACCA  STRAITS     265 

on  the  coast.  The  lenses  and  lantern  apparatus,  as  usual, 
had  been  ordered  in  England,  and  were  despatched  to  the 
East  carefully  packed  in  substantial  tin-lined  cases.  In 
order  to  secure  the  utmost  protection  during  transit,  each 
metallic  and  lenticular  part  was  wrapped  in  tow.  Care 
also  was  bestowed  upon  the  sealing  of  the  tin  case,  since 
the  propensity  of  the  ant  to  discover  the  smallest  pin- 
hole so  as  to  reach  the  interior  was  emphasized  upon 
the  packers.  Accordingly  the  seams  were  doubly  sol- 
dered. 

In  due  course  the  cases  with  their  precious  contents 
reached  the  site  of  erection,  but  unfortunately  the  season 
was  so  far  advanced  that  the  engineer  concluded  he  could 
not  complete  the  erection  of  the  lantern  before  the  monsoon 
broke.  As  the  contents  of  the  cases  were  preserved  by 
the  tin  armour  from  climatic  attacks,  he  stored  the  cases 
securely,  and  with  his  workmen  left  the  place  until  favour- 
able weather  returned. 

Some  weeks  later  the  chief  and  his  toilers  reappeared  upon 
the  scene.  All  preparations  for  setting  the  optical  apparatus 
were  completed.  Imagine  the  dismay  of  the  engineer 
when,  on  opening  the  case  containing  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  lantern,  he  found  that  it  had  been  raided  by 
white  ants.  They  had  driven  their  tracks  spirally  through 
the  tow,  which  evidently  they  had  enjoyed,  and  although 
this  was  of  little  consequence,  the  formic  acid  had  played 
sad  havoc  with  the  bright  surfaces  of  the  spindles.  In 
lighthouse  engineering  the  surfaces  of  these  parts  must  be 
as  bright  and  as  clean  as  a  mirror  to  insure  smooth,  steady 
working.  But  now  these  spindles  were  as  pitted  and  marked 
as  a  victim  to  smallpox.  It  was  a  maddening  contretemps, 
since  the  only  way  to  restore  the  vital  bright  surfaces  was 
to  turn  them  in  the  lathe.  Such  a  tool  was  not  available 
within  a  hundred  or  more  miles.  Erection  had  to  be  delayed, 
however,  until  this  treatment  was  effected. 

Seeing  that  the  tin  case  was  soldered  up  with  such  infinite 
care,  the  question  arises,  How  did  the  ants  get  into  it  ?  To 
the  engineer  it  seemed  an  inscrutable  puzzle,  but  he  sub- 


266  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

jected  the  case  to  a  minute  examination.  Finally  he  solved 
the  problem.  At  one  corner  he  found  that  a  nail,  while 
being  driven  during  the  process  of  nailing  up  the  heavy 
outer  wooden  case  at  the  English  factory,  had  turned  slightly, 
so  that  its  point  had  punctured  the  inner  metal  case.  The 
ants,  too,  had  discovered  this  minute  breach,  and  through 
it  had  swarmed  to  the  attack  upon  the  interior. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES 

During  the  past  fifty  years  engineering  science  as  applied  to 
lighthouses  has  made  remarkable  advances.  This  has  been 
due  largely  to  the  indefatigable  perseverance  and  ceaseless 
labour  of  the  chemist  in  regard  to  illumination.  This 
wonder-worker  has  given  us  acetylene,  has  evolved  means 
whereby  oil-gas  may  be  compressed  to  a  pressure  of  several 
atmospheres  with  safety,  and  has  discovered  other  gases 
obtainable  by  inexpensive  and  simple  means.  The  engineer 
has  not  hesitated  to  profit  from  these  developments,  and 
has  devised  highly  ingenious  apparatuses  whereby  these 
illuminating  mediums  may  be  stored  and  used,  so  as  to  dis- 
pense with  the  human  element  almost  entirely  ;  in  fact,  in 
these  instances  the  latter  factor  has  been  reduced  to  such  a 
degree  that  it  is  only  called  upon  to  perform  certain  per- 
functory operations,  such  as  the  recharging  of  the  storage 
vessels  at  long  intervals — three,  six,  or  twelve  months, 
according  to  circumstances. 

This  combination  has  provided  the  lighthouse  engineer 
with  a  new,  powerful,  and  efficient  means  of  overcoming 
abnormal  difficulties.  Many  a  rock,  reef,  or  stretch  of  un- 
inhabited coastline  has  demanded  indication,  but  has  defied 
such  protection  from  motives  of  cost,  inaccessibility,  or 
searching  problems  concerning  the  accommodation  and 
relief  of  the  keepers.  As  I  have  shown  in  the  course  of  this 
volume,  the  erection  of  a  first-class  lighthouse  is  a  costly 
undertaking,  and  the  shipping  interests,  which  in  the  case 
of  Great  Britain  and  a  few  other  countries  are  called  upon 
to  pay  the  bill,  naturally  demur,  unless  the  rock  or  other 
obstacle  is  situate  in  the  centre  of  the  marine  thoroughfare, 
or  the  approach  to  a  pitiless  coast  is  extremely  hazardous, 

267 


268  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

when  the  erection  of  the  tower  becomes  absolutely  impera- 
tive. If  one  were  to  add  up  the  costs  of  all  the  great  lights 
scattered  throughout  the  seven  seas,  it  would  be  found  that 
several  millions  sterling  had  been  sunk  in  this  humane 
effort,  and  yet,  relatively  speaking,  but  a  small  area  of 
danger  in  the  aggregate  is  safeguarded. 

Then  the  human  factor  demands  consideration.  A  colony 
of  four  or  six  men  scarcely  could  be  found  willing  to  suffer 
isolation  from  the  world  at  large  and  to  be  deprived  of 
intercourse  with  their  fellow-beings  in  the  interests  of 
shipping,  say,  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  around  Cape 
Horn,  among  the  icy  fastnesses  of  the  Northern  Labrador 
coast,  or  in  Hudson  Bay.  Life  in  the  lighthouses  which 
guard  the  busy  steamship  lanes  is  monotonous  and  nerve- 
shattering  enough,  but  to  maroon  men  in  such  remote 
places  as  those  mentioned  above  would  be  to  promote  a 
wholesale  rush  of  inmates  for  the  lunatic  asylums. 

This  is  where  the  chemist  and  the  engineer  in  collaboration 
have  triumphed.  By  their  joint  efforts  it  is  now  possible 
to  supply  the  most  inhospitable  shore  with  a  belt  of  lights 
equal  in  every  respect  to  those  mounting  sentinel  over  the 
more  densely  populated  reaches  of  coast  in  the  civilized 
parts  of  the  globe.  The  unattended  lighthouse  is  a  modern 
development  born  of  necessity,  which  has  proved  highly 
serviceable,  effective,  and  reliable.  The  passenger,  as  he 
lolls  against  the  taffrail  of  the  steamer  ploughing  her  way 
carefully  through  the  lane  375  miles  long  separating  the 
mainland  of  South  America  from  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and 
watches  the  faithful  star  twinkling  upon  the  top  of  a  frown- 
ing cliff  and  urging  the  mariner  to  keep  clear,  may  cherish 
a  feeling  of  pity  for  the  man  who  has  to  keep  that  beam 
shining.  But  his  commiseration  is  misplaced.  No  human 
hands  touch  that  beacon,  perhaps,  for  six  months  or  more  at 
a  time.  It  is  a  triumph  of  automatic  operation.  The  same 
applies  to  the  wicked  shores  of  New  Zealand,  the  uninviting 
northern  stretches  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  iron-bound 
coasts  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  many  another  unattrac- 
tive mainland  and  island. 


i  ■■ 


l! 


ii  '^ 


X 


THE    PLATTE    FOUGERE    LIGHTHOUSE. 

This  beacon,  designed  by  Messrs.  D.  and  C.  Stevenson,  probably  is  the  finest  unattended  lighthouse 
in  existence.     On  the  top  of  the  tower  is  the  automatically  controlled  acetylene  light. 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  269 

All  the  great  maritime  nations  possess  several  of  these 
silent,  faithful  lights,  which,  although  upon  their  intro- 
duction they  were  regarded  with  a  certain  amount  of  sus- 
picion, owing  to  the  urgent  necessity  of  a  light  never  faihng  in 
its  duty  for  the  guidance  of  the  seafarer,  yet  have  been  proved 
by  the  convincing  lesson  of  experience  to  be  as  reliable  in 
every  respect  as  the  light  which  is  tended  by  human  hands. 

So  far  as  Great  Britain  is  concerned,  the  unattended  light 
has  been  brought  to  a  high  stage  of  efficiency  and  utility  by 
the  efforts  of  Messrs.  David  and  Charles  Stevenson,  while 
in  other  parts  of  the  world  the  apparatus  and  methods 
perfected  by  Mr.  Gustaf  Dalen  of  Stockholm  are  used 
extensively. 

The  most  interesting  example  of  the  Stevenson  unattended 
lighthouse  is  provided  in  the  English  Channel,  indicating  the 
entrance  to  the  strait  which  leads  to  the  Guernsey  capital  of 
St.  Peter  Port.  This  was  one  of  the  first  of  its  character  to 
be  erected,  but  the  type  is  now  being  adopted  widely  owing 
to  the  success  of  this  initial  undertaking.  The  Channel 
Islands  have  achieved  an  unsavoury  reputation  in  marine 
annals,  as  they  form  a  graveyard  of  the  Channel ;  they  have 
claimed  their  victims,  during  recent  years  at  any  rate, 
mostly  from  the  ranks  of  the  heavy  cross-Channel  traffic. 

The  Russell  Channel,  leading  to  St.  Peter  Port  from  the 
north,  is  exceedingly  dangerous,  the  sea  being  littered  with 
granite  rocks  both  submerged  and  exposed,  of  which  the 
Grande  Braye,  Barsier,  and  Platte  Fougere,  form  the  outer 
rampart.  Readers  of  Victor  Hugo  may  gather  some  realistic 
idea  of  the  perilous  nature  of  these  waters  by  perusing  "  The 
Toilers  of  the  Sea,"  in  which  these  rocks  figure  very 
prominently,  particularly  the  Platte  Fougere.  The  menace 
of  this  corner  of  the  channel  is  accentuated  by  the  velocity 
of  the  tidal  currents  which  swing  and  swirl  round  the  reefs, 
together  with  the  extreme  range  of  the  tides,  which  averages 
about  30  feet.  Formerly,  in  thick  weather,  vessels  found 
it  almost  impossible  to  pick  up  the  Russell,  and  often  a 
captain,  by  the  rip  and  crash  of  metal  being  torn,  to  his 
dismay  learned  that  he  had  swung  too  far  to  the  westward. 


2/0  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  companies  engaged  in  this  traffic  repeatedly  petitioned 
the  authorities  to  mark  the  entrance  to  the  strait  by  some 
adequate  means.  A  light  was  not  required  so  keenly  as  a 
sound-signal,  because  in  clear  weather  navigation  was 
tolerably  safe.  The  proposal  was  discussed  time  after  time, 
but  no  solution  appeared  to  be  forthcoming.  To  erect  a 
lighthouse  on  the  outer  fringe  of  the  barrier  would  have 
entailed  prodigious  expenditure,  which  the  island  authori- 
ties could  ill  afford,  even  if  such  a  scheme  were  practicable. 

The  question  was  taken  up  boldly  by  General  Campbell 
during  his  occupation  of  the  post  of  Governor-General  of  the 
Island  of  Guernsey,  and  he  pressed  forward  the  scheme 
vigorously  in  a  resolute  determination  to  bring  about  a 
diminution  in  the  number  of  maritime  disasters  at  this 
point.  He  approached  Messrs.  David  and  Charles  Stevenson, 
who  had  considerable  experience  of  similar  conditions  around 
the  Scottish  coasts,  and  they,  after  an  elaborate  survey  of 
the  site,  recommended  the  erection  of  a  light  and  fog-signal 
station  upon  the  Platte  Fougere,  which  should  be  controlled 
from  the  land  a  mile  distant.  They  agreed  that  the  erection 
of  a  tower  similar  to  those  generally  planted  on  sea-rocks 
would  be  a  formidable  undertaking  and  enormously  ex- 
pensive, owing  to  the  conditions  prevailing,  but  the  station 
they  suggested  was  quite  practicable,  and  would  serve  the 
purposes  equally  well. 

Instead  of  a  massive,  gracefully-curving  tower,  measuring 
some  40  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  these  engineers  sug- 
gested a  building  of  irregular  octagonal  shape,  measuring 
I4|-  and  17  feet  across  the  faces,  80  feet  in  height,  and 
carried  out  in  ferro-concrete.  They  advocated  its  erection 
upon  the  Platte  Fougere,  because  there  the  fog -signal 
would  be  brought  into  the  most  serviceable  position  for 
shipping.  A  narrow  or  thin  building  was  advised,  to  offer 
the  minimum  of  surface  to  the  waves,  which  break  very 
heavily  on  these  ridges.  The  wisdom  of  this  design  has  been 
revealed  very  convincingly  since  the  tower  has  been  in 
service.  The  seas  fall  on  either  side,  divide  and  rush  round 
the  building,  so  that  it  does  not  experience  the  full  brunt  of 


SETTING   THE   COMPRESSED-AIR    RESERVOIR   AT    FORT    DOYLE. 


The  Platte  Fougere  automatic  light  is  supplemeated  by  a  land  station  on  the  island  of  Guernsey 

a  mile  away. 


THE    FORT   DOYLE   SIREN. 


This  installation  on  the  island  is  maintained  so  as  to  take  the  place  of  the  automatic  lighthouse 
a  mile  oat  to  sea,  in  the  remote  event  of  the  latter  breaking  down. 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  271 

their  heavy,  smashing  blows.  As  the  engineers  pointed  out, 
"  It  is  better  to  avoid  heavy  sea  pressures,  where  feasible, 
in  preference  to  courting  them." 

Still,  the  Platte  Fougere  was  not  an  ideal  rock  from  the 
engineers'  point  of  view,  although  it  is  a  solid  knot  of  granite. 
Its  head  is  visible  only  at  low-water  spring-tides,  while  it  is 
difficult  to  approach,  even  in  the  smoothest  weather,  owing 
to  the  tides  and  currents.  Much  of  the  foundation  work  had 
to  be  carried  out  under  water.  The  season  was  unavoidably 
limited,  as  the  days  when  both  the  wind  and  the  sea  are 
calm  in  this  part  of  the  channel  are  very  few  and  far  between. 

The  tower  is  solid  for  a  height  of  46  feet  above  the  rock, 
and  the  base  is  formed  of  Portland  cement  placed  in  iron 
moulds,  with  iron  bars  driven  into  the  solid  rock  to  anchor 
the  concrete  firmly.  On  the  side  to  which  the  building  is 
exposed  to  the  heaviest  seas,  massive  beams  of  rolled  steel 
are  driven  into  the  rock,  so  as  to  impart  additional  strength 
to  the  part  of  the  tower  where  the  greatest  strains  are  likely 
to  be  set  up. 

On  the  entrance  level  is  a  compartment  containing  an 
electric  motor  and  air-compressor,  while  on  the  floor  im- 
mediately above  is  a  duplicate  installation.  The  siren 
projects  through  the  top  of  the  tower,  the  trumpet  being  so 
turned  as  to  throw  the  sounds  in  a  horizontal  direction 
over  the  water.  On  the  top  of  the  tower  is  a  small  automatic 
acetylene  gas  plant  and  light,  such  as  the  engineers  have 
employed  so  successfully  in  their  unattended  Scottish  light- 
stations,  two  air-receivers,  and  a  water-tank.  A  new  type 
of  burner  is  used,  and  a  clockwork  mechanism  is  incorporated 
to  extinguish  the  light  at  dawn  and  to  ignite  it  at  dusk,  with 
a  special  arrangement  to  allow  for  the  short  summer  nights 
and  the  long  periods  of  darkness  during  the  winter. 

As  mentioned  above,  the  station  is  controlled  electrically 
from  a  point  on  shore.  In  deciding  the  latter,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  discover  the  most  favourable  landing-place  for  the 
submarine  cable  in  relation  to  its  route,  and  Doyle  Fort 
was  selected  as  meeting  all  requirements  in  this  direction. 
Here  a  two-floor  dwelling  has  been  erected  for  the  keepers, 


272  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

together  with  an  adjoining  engine-house,  which  measures 
32  feet  in  length  by  20  feet  wide.  The  tower  being  a  mile 
distant,  the  designers  had  to  meet  the  possibility  of  the 
machinery  therein  breaking  down.  Accordingly,  at  the 
shore  station  there  is  an  auxiliary  fog-siren  and  air-com- 
pressing plant,  which  is  brought  into  use  when  the  sea 
apparatus  is  deranged. 

The  machinery  includes  two  oil-engines  which  drive  three- 
phase  alternators,  and  an  air-compressor  for  working  the 
land  siren  when  required.  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties 
arose  in  connection  with  the  submarine  cable  which  connects 
the  land-station  with  the  sea-tower.  Owing  to  the  broken, 
rocky  nature  of  the  sea-bed,  the  viciousness  of  the  currents, 
and  the  heavy  seas,  the  cable  had  to  be  of  exceptional 
strength  ;  indeed,  it  had  to  be  made  specially  for  the  purpose. 
It  is  a  double-sheathed,  steel-armoured  cable  of  the  heaviest 
"  rock  "  type,  being  11  inches  in  circumference,  and  weighing 
45  tons  per  nautical  mile.  As  the  current  used  is  three- 
phase,  there  are  three  conductors,  which  weigh  1,100  pounds 
per  mile,  protected  by  a  thick  layer  of  gutta-percha  aver- 
aging 450  pounds  per  mile.  In  the  centre  of  the  core  are  two 
other  wires  for  switching  and  telephone  purposes  respectively. 
The  laying  of  the  cable  was  a  peculiar  and  exacting  task  in 
itself  ;  6,504  feet  had  to  be  paid  out.  But  by  waiting  for  a 
very  calm  day  and  slack  water  this  task  was  achieved 
without  mishap.  In  the  tower  there  is  a  simple  switch 
operated  by  an  electro-magnet,  whereby  the  motor-driven 
air-compressors  are  thrown  in  and  out  of  action.  The  two 
compressors  are  used  alternately,  so  as  to  keep  them  in 
thorough  working  order  ;  and  as  they  have  to  be  left  some- 
times for  months  without  being  examined,  special  attention 
has  been  devoted  to  their  lubrication. 

A  visit  to  this  lighthouse  is  a  somewhat  curious  experience. 
Climbing  the  ladder  and  entering  the  building,  one  finds  it 
apparently  abandoned.  Not  a  sound  beyond  the  murmuring 
of  the  waves  playing  about  the  rocks  below  disturbs  a  silence 
which  is  uncannily  tense.  Suddenly  there  is  an  almost 
imperceptible  click.     The  keeper  at  the  light-station  has 


; 


^  0 


AX    UNATTENDED   BEACON    LIGHT   PLACED    UPON   A   WILD    PART   OF 
THE   SCOTTISH    COAST. 

These  lights  will  run  for  several  months  without  any  human  attention,  and,  by  means  of  ingenious, 
mechanism,  light  and  extinguish  themselves  automatically. 


THE    GASFETEX    LIGHT  :    A    LONELY    BEACON    IN   SWEDISH    WATERS. 

This  was  the  first  tower  to  be  fitted  with  the  DaMn  "sun-valve  "  in  conjunction  with  the 
Daliin  flasher.  Several  automatic  lights  of  this  type  are  used  to  show  the  way  through  the 
Panama  Canal. 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  273 

moved  his  switch,  and  simultaneously  that  in  the  tower  has 
closed.  The  electric  motors  instantly  commence  to  revolve-, 
with  a  low  grunt  at  first,  but  rising  quickly  to  a  loud  hum- 
ming as  they  settle  down  to  their  stride,  driving  the  air- 
compressors.  Then  comes  the  ear-splitting,  deep-toned  roar 
from  the  siren  overhead,  attended  by  the  whirr  of  machinery 
in  motion.  The  humming  of  the  motors  and  the  compres- 
sors dies  down,  and  in  a  few  seconds  absolute  stillness 
prevails  once  more.  The  sensation  is  decidedly  eerie.  It 
seems  impossible  that  a  silence  so  intense  as  to  be  felt  should 
be  interrupted  by  a  click — the  result  of  a  slight  movement 
by  an  unseen  hand  a  mile  away — which  gives  forth  such  a 
nerve-shattering  din  as  to  convey  the  idea  that  Bedlam  had 
been  let  loose.  At  the  land-station  the  experience  is  simi- 
larly weird.  The  keeper  moves  his  switch  which  brings  the 
tower  machinery  into  action.  Presently  there  is  the  sharp 
tinkle  of  an  electric  bell.  This  notifies  the  keeper  that  the 
blast  on  the  tower  has  been  given,  but  conclusive  evidence 
of  this  fact  does  not  arrive  until  five  seconds  later,  when 
the  baying  of  the  siren  comes  rolling  over  the  water. 

A  complete  check  is  kept  upon  the  isolated  station  out  at 
sea.  If  the  electric  bell  does  not  ring  out  at  the  appointed 
period,  to  notify  the  keeper  that  the  siren  has  emitted  its 
warning  note,  he  knows  that  something  is  amiss.  The  land- 
station  is  brought  into  service  without  delay,  the  intimation 
to  the  mariner  to  stand  clear  being  thrown  from  Doyle  Fort 
once  every  ninety  seconds.  The  men  on  shore  take  it  in 
turns  to  mount  watch  for  fog  both  day  and  night,  and  their 
vigil  is  checked.  There  is  an  electric  alarm,  which  maintains 
silence  only  so  long  as  the  man  on  duty  fulfils  his  appointed 
task  and  records  this  fact  upon  his  mechanical  register  at 
scheduled  intervals.  Should  he  fail  to  perform  this  function, 
there  is  a  frenzied  clanging  by  the  alarm-bell,  which  sum- 
mons the  second  keeper  to  duty. 

Apparently,  the  weakest  point  in  the  installation  is  the 
submarine  cable,  but  the  engineers  entertain  no  appre- 
hensions on  this  score.  It  is  too  stoutly  made  and  too 
heavily  armoured  to  rupture  very  readily.     Experience  has 

18 


274  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

proved  its  efficiency  and  reliability,  while  a  long  life  is  antici- 
pated for  it.  The  Platte  Fougere  unattended  lighthouse  has 
opened  up  new  possibilities  for  protecting  wild  coasts.  It 
has  proved  conclusively  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  main- 
taining such  a  station  and  controlling  it  from  a  distance  so 
long  as  automatic  apparatus  which  has  proved  its  worth 
is  employed.  This  practical  application  should  serve  to 
solve  many  peculiar  problems.  No  longer  can  the  bogie  of 
expense  be  put  forward  as  an  argument  against  safeguarding 
a  notoriously  evil  length  of  shoreline  or  isolated  rock,  even 
if  the  latter  is  exposed  to  the  heaviest  seas  known.  The 
Guernsey  installation  was  completed  for  ^^8,500,  or  $42,500, 
and  is  as  serviceable  as  the  ordinary  type  of  tower,  which  in 
this  instance  would  have  cost  at  least  £60,000,  or  $300,000, 
to  build  and  equip.  From  the  maintenance  point  of  view 
it  is  equally  convincing  and  economical,  inasmuch  as  only  two 
keepers  are  required  in  the  place  of  the  four  who  otherwise 
Would  have  been  necessary. 

The  system  which  has  been  devised  by  Mr.  Gustaf  Dalen 
of  Stockholm,  and  which  is  exploited  by  the  Gas  Accumulator 
Company  of  the  Swedish  capital,  operates  with  dissolved 
acetylene.  The  first  light  in  Scandinavian  waters  to  be 
brought  into  action  upon  the  "  Aga  "  principle,  as  it  is 
called,  was  installed  in  the  Gasfeten  tower,  an  exceedingly 
isolated  beacon  which  offered  every  means  of  testing  it 
thoroughly.  The  idea  follows  the  broad  lines  of  that 
adopted  in  connection  with  lightships,  and,  the  Gasfeten 
experiments  proving  completely  successful,  it  has  been 
adopted  extensively  since,  not  only  by  the  Swedish  authori- 
ties for  the  lighting  of  lonely  waters  in  the  Baltic  Sea  and 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  but  by  various  other  Powers.  The  Straits 
of  Magellan  are  protected  in  this  way,  and  when  one  recalls 
the  sparse  population  which  dwells  upon  the  banks  of  this 
short-cut  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and 
bears  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  lights  have  to  be  left  to  their 
own  automatic  action  for  some  months  on  end,  then  one 
may  realize  the  perfection  and  reliability  of  the  invention. 
The  failure  of  a  light  in  such  treacherous  waters  would  be 


THE      DALEN      "  SUX-VALVE,"     THE     MOST     WONDERFUL 
INVENTION    OF   MODERN    LIGHTHOUSE    ENGINEERING. 

Depending  upon  the  action  of  daylight  alone,  it  automatically  ignites  and  extinguishes 
the  light  at  dusk  and  dawn  respectively. 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  275 

notified  speedily  to  the  authorities  responsible  for  the 
illumination  of  this  sea-lane,  but  no  such  complaints  appear 
to  have  been  received  from  passing  vessels.  These  lonely 
lights  for  the  most  part  are  of  a  very  simple  character,  a 
result  due  to  local  conditions.  As  a  rule  they  are  planted  on 
lofty  eminences — not  at  too  high  an  elevation,  as  thereby 
they  might  be  rendered  useless  by  headland  fogs — at  a 
height  varying  between  150  and  250  feet.  The  base  of  the 
tower  forms  a  space  for  the  accommodation  of  the  gas- 
accumulators,  wherein  the  illuminating  medium  is  stored 
under  pressure,  surmounted  by  the  lantern  which  carries 
the  requisite  optical  apparatus,  and  the  flasher  whereby 
the  characteristic  visual  warning  is  given. 

Although  adoption  of  the  flasher  enabled  the  consumption 
of  gas  to  be  reduced  very  appreciably,  there  was  one  notice- 
able drawback  :  the  light  had  to  burn  both  night  and  day, 
unless  clockwork  mechanism  were  introduced  to  extinguish 
the  light  at  sunrise  and  to  ignite  it  at  twilight.  Some 
authorities,  however,  do  not  place  trust  in  clockwork 
mechanism.  Certainly  it  is  liable  to  fail  at  a  critical  moment, 
and  in  the  case  of  an  isolated  light,  several  hundred  miles 
from  the  nearest  base,  this  would  be  a  serious  calamity, 
intimation  of  the  fact  not  being  available  until  several  weeks 
after  the  disability  had  been  observed. 

In  order  to  overcome  the  fallibility  of  clockwork,  and  to 
insure  a  still  further  marked  decrease  in  the  consumption 
of  gas,  Mr.  Gustaf  Dalen  devoted  his  energies  to  the  per- 
fection of  a  device  which  should  achieve  the  self-same  end, 
but  be  operated  by  Nature  herself.  His  efforts  were  crowned 
with  complete  success  by  the  invention  of  the  "light-valve," 
but  which  has  become  more  widely  known  as  the  "  sun- 
valve."' 

This  device  is  based  upon  a  well-known  principle.  If 
two  objects,  fashioned  from  the  same  metal,  and  identical 
in  every  respect  except  that  one  is  made  light-absorbing 
and  the  other  light-reflecting,  are  exposed  to  daylight,  while 
the  former  will  expand,  the  latter  will  remain  unaffected. 
This  result  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  one  which  absorbs 


2/6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

light  transforms  it  into  energy.  The  acting  part  of  the 
"  sun-valve"  therefore  is  a  light-absorber.  It  consists  of  a 
central  rod,  the  surface  of  which  is  coated  with  lampblack, 
so  that  its  light-absorbing  qualities  are  enhanced  as  much 
as  possible.  The  lower  part  of  this  rod  is  connected  to  a 
small  lever,  which  opens  and  shuts  an  orifice  through  which 
the  gas  passes  to  the  flasher  in  the  lantern  above.  Around 
this  central  black  copper  rod  are  three  other  copper  rods, 
disposed  equidistantly.  They  resemble  the  former  in  every 
respect  except  that  they  have  no  light-absorbing  qualities, 
but  they  are  given  polished  gold  surfaces,  so  that  their 
light-reflecting  properties  are  raised  to  the  maximum. 

This  sun-valve  is  exposed.  At  the  break  of  dawn,  under 
the  gathering  intensity  of  daylight,  the  central  black  rod 
absorbs  the  luminosity,  the  amount  of  which  is  increased 
by  the  light  thrown  from  the  gold-burnished  outer  rods, 
and,  converting  it  into  energy,  expands  longitudinally.  In 
so  doing  it  forces  the  lever  at  the  base  downwards,  closing 
the  opening  through  which  the  gas  flows  to  the  flasher. 
In  a  short  while,  when  the  day  has  broken  fairly  and  there 
is  no  further  need  for  the  beacon's  services,  the  gas-feed  is 
cut  off  entirely,  only  the  pilot  burner  remaining  alight,  the 
gas-supply  to  this  not  being  affected  by  the  sun-valve.  In 
order  to  bring  the  greatest  possible  pressure  upon  the  lever, 
the  blackened  rod  is  so  arranged  that  it  can  expand  only  in 
one  direction — namely,  downwards. 

Upon  the  approach  of  evening,  owing  to  the  daylight 
becoming  weaker,  the  blackened  rod  contracts,  and,  the 
pressure  upon  the  lever  being  released,  the  gas  commences 
to  flow  once  more  to  the  burner.  It  is  a  small  stream  at 
first,  but  as  the  darkness  gathers,  and  the  shrinking  con- 
tinues, the  valve  opens  wider  and  wider,  until  at  last,  when 
night  has  settled  down  and  the  copper  central  rod  has  fully 
contracted,  the  gas-valve  is  opened  to  its  fullest  extent, 
permitting  the  greatest  pressure  of  gas  to  flow  to  the  burner, 
so  that  the  beacon  throws  its  most  brilliant  light.  This  auto- 
matic action  continues  infallibly  every  dawn  and  dusk,  and 
is  the  simplest  and  at  the  same  time  most  reliable  means 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  277 

of  economizing  gas  during  the  day  that  has  yet  been  de- 
vised. 

There  is  another  feature  of  this  system  which  must  not  be 
overlooked.  Suppose,  for  some  reason  or  other,  that  the 
sea  becomes  shrouded  in  suffused  light,  such  as  might  arise 
from  the  obscurig  of  the  sun  by  an  overhanging  bank  of 
fog  or  smoke,  the  beacon  comes  automatically  into  service, 
as  the  cutting  off  of  the  daylight  must  bring  about  a  con- 
traction of  the  blackened  copper  rod  controlling  the  valve. 

The  central  rod  can  be  adjusted  to  any  degree  of  sensi- 
tiveness, by  means  of  a  screw,  while  protection  of  the  vital 
parts  is  insured  by  enclosure  within  a  heavy  glass  cylinder. 
The  first  apparatus  of  this  character  was  tested  by  the 
Swedish  authorities  in  1907,  and  proved  so  successful  that 
it  is  now  in  service  at  all  the  exposed  unattended  light- 
houses in  Swedish  and  Finnish  waters  ;  while  it  has  been 
adopted,  also,  very  extensively  by  the  United  States,  more 
particularly  for  the  lighting  of  the  lonely  stretches  of  the 
Alaskan  coastline  and  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Of  course,  the  saving  of  gas  which  is  rendered  possible  by 
the  use  of  the  sun-valve  varies  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year.  During  the  winter,  when  the  nights  are  long,  the 
saving  may  not  be  very  marked,  but  in  the  summer,  when 
darkness  does  not  last  more  than  four  or  five  hours,  the 
economy  is  very  noticeable.  According  to  the  experience 
of  the  Swedish  authorities,  the  average  saving  of  gas  during 
the  year  varies  from  35  to  40  per  cent.,  as  compared  with 
similar  lights  not  fitted  with  this  device. 

But  there  is  another  factor  which  is  influenced  to  a  very 
appreciable  degree  by  the  utilization  of  the  sun-valve.  By 
cutting  off  the  light  when  it  is  not  required,  the  capacity  of 
— i.e.,  the  duration  of  service  upon — one  charge  is  length- 
ened, and  this  in  the  case  of  an  isolated  light  is  a  very 
important  consideration.  In  fact,  with  the  "  Aga"  system 
wherein  the  sun-valve  is  combined  with  the  flasher,  it  is 
possible  for  the  light  to  work  a  round  twelve  months  without 
the  least  control  or  necessity  for  intermediate  inspection, 
and  at  as  low  an  annual  charge  as  £2  15s.,  or  about  $14. 


2/8  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

One  of  the  latest  unattended  installations  which  have 
been  carried  out  upon  these  lines  is  the  Lagerholmen  light- 
house, marking  a  dangerous  rock  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  It  is  a 
cylindrical  tower,  with  the  focal  plane  56  feet  4  inches 
above  sea-level,  and  the  flashing  light,  with  sun-valve  con- 
trol, has  a  range  of  eighteen  miles.  The  geographical  range, 
however,  is  only  thirteen  miles,  owing  to  the  comparatively 
low  height  of  the  tower. 

An  interesting  and  ingenious  automatic  unattended  light 
has  also  been  established  in  an  isolated  part  of  the  Bristol 
Channel.  It  was  designed  by  Sir  Thomas  Matthews,  the 
engineer  to  the  Brethren  of  Trinity  House.  This  is  purely 
and  simply  a  clockwork-controlled  apparatus  in  which 
extreme  care  has  been  taken  to  eliminate  the  disadvantages 
incidental  to  such  mechanism.  This  type  of  light  was 
designed  to  fulfil  three  conditions — to  give  a  flashing  light ; 
to  light  up  and  go  out  at  the  proper  times ;  and  to  require 
attention  only  at  long  intervals.  Acetylene  is  the  illuminant 
used,  the  gas  being  stored  in  a  reservoir  under  high  pressure. 
The  gas  as  it  emerges  from  the  supply  cylinder  is  expanded, 
so  that  the  pressure  at  the  burner  does  not  exceed  2  pounds 
per  square  inch. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  this  apparatus  is  that  the 
clockwork  control  cutting  off  and  turning  on  the  gas  does 
not  require  to  be  wound  by  hand,  but  is  actuated  by  the 
mechanism  which  revolves  the  lenses,  through  a  simple  set 
of  gearing.  The  gas  as  it  issues  from  the  reservoir  passes 
into  one  of  two  cylinders.  Each  of  these  is  provided  with  an 
inlet  and  an  exhaust  valve,  while  the  upper  end  is  closed 
with  a  lid  of  leather,  covering  the  top  like  the  vellum  of  a 
drum.  To  each  leather  cover  is  attached  a  circular  piece  of 
metal,  smaller  than  the  leather  diaphragm,  and  from  this 
in  turn  extends  a  vertical  rod,  the  upper  end  of  which  is 
connected  to  one  end  of  a  centrally  pivoted  rocking  arm. 
When  the  gas  enters  one  cylinder,  naturally  in  expanding 
it  forces  the  leather  lid  upwards,  and  with  it  the  vertical 
rod.  This  elevates  the  corresponding  end  of  the  rocking 
arm,  and  simultaneously  drives  down  the  rod  attached  to 


THE   LA.GERHOLMEN    LIGHTHOUSE. 

It  marks  a  lonely  dangerous  rock  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  operates  upon  the  Aga  unattended 
automatic  system,  with  DaUn  flasher  and  "sun-valve." 


w^ 


V'W'^.  W 


.^ 


AN    UNATTENDED    BEACON    LIGHTING   THE   STRAITS    OF    MAGELLAN. 
This  warning,   fitted  with  Dal6n  flasher  and  sun-valve,  is  visited  once  in   six  months. 


AN    AUTOMATIC    LIGHT-BOAT. 

This  novel  warning  was  constructed  for  installation  at  the  mouth  of  a  Swedish  river 
owing  to  the  extreme  velocity  of  the  current.  Such  a  boat  may  be  left  unvisited  for  a 
year  if  desired. 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  279 

the  opposite  end  of  the  beam,  which  in  turn  drives  down 
the  leather  lid  of  the  second  cylinder,  and  forces  out  any  gas 
that  may  be  therein.  The  apparatus  consequently  is  some- 
thing like  a  double  pump,  owing  to  the  rocking  arm  having 
a  seesaw  motion.  This  reciprocating  action  serves  to  wind 
up  the  clock,  and  also  to  revolve  the  lenses  through  spurs 
and  pinions.  The  mechanism,  however,  is  controlled  com- 
pletely by  the  clock  whereby  the  light  is  started,  inasmuch 
as  without  this  the  apparatus  cannot  be  set  in  motion. 
There  are  two  dials,  one  of  which  is  divided  into  twenty-four 
divisions,  corresponding  to  the  hours  of  the  day,  and  the 
other  into  twelve  divisions,  representing  the  twelve  months 
of  the  year.  The  clocks  work  together,  and  the  time  of 
lighting  up  is  advanced  or  retarded,  according  to  the  time 
of  the  year,  through  the  clock  train  wheels. 

The  apparatus  is  very  compact,  highly  ingenious,  and 
has  proved  efficient  in  service.  Although  this  is  the  first 
application  of  the  idea  for  rotating  the  lenses  by  the  gas 
which  feeds  the  burners,  so  far  as  England  is  concerned,  it 
has  been  employed  under  similar  circumstances  in  Germany 
with  conspicuous  success,  in  combination  with  the  Pintsch 
oil-gas  apparatuses,  but  it  lacks  the  simplicity  and  reliabihty 
of  the  sun-valve. 

A  different  system,  which  has  been  adopted  widely 
throughout  the  East  and  in  Australian  waters,  is  the 
Wigham  petroleum  beacon.  This  system  possesses  many 
notable  features,  the  most  important  being  that  well- 
refined  petroleum  oil  is  employed.  In  many  parts  of  the 
world  carbide  of  calcium  is  not  readily  obtainable,  and, 
moreover,  is  somewhat  expensive,  whereas,  on  the  other 
hand,  oil  is  comparatively  cheap  and  available  in  un- 
limited quantities.  The  principle  of  working  is  somewhat 
novel.  The  wick  is  not  burned  in  the  manner  generally 
followed  in  regard  to  lamps — viz.,  at  the  end,  which  within 
a  short  time  becomes  carbonized  and  brings  a  marked 
diminution  of  the  illuminating  power — but  it  is  moved  so 
that  the  same  part  is  not  exposed  continuously  to  the  action 
of  the  heat  arising  from  combustion.     It  is  caused  to  travel 


28o  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

horizontally  over  a  small  roller,  in  a  specially-constructed 
burner,  combustion  taking  place,  therefore,  on  its  flat  side. 
It  is  moved  slowly  and  continuously  over  this  roller,  so 
that  it  cannot  burn  through,  and  in  this  manner  the  flame, 
being  constantly  emitted  from  a  fresh  surface,  is  of  uniform 
intensity. 

The  lamp  comprises  three  main  parts.  There  is  the 
lantern,  with  the  lens  and  the  projecting  panes  of  plate- 
glass,  in  the  focus  of  which  the  burner  is  fixed.  Then  there 
is  the  burning-oil  reservoir,  which  feeds  the  wick  as  it 
moves  towards  the  burner.  This  reservoir  is  circular  in 
shape,  somewhat  shallow,  and  serves  as  a  deck  on  which 
the  lantern  is  built  up.  The  third  part  is  the  float  cylinder, 
made  of  copper,  which  is  attached  to  the  underside  of  the 
oil  reservoir.  This  cylinder  is  filled  with  oil,  which  is  kept 
quite  distinct  from  the  burning  oil,  and  thereon  floats  a 
weighted  copper  drum,  to  which  one  end  of  the  wick  is 
secured  by  means  of  a  hook.  At  the  lower  end  of  this 
cylinder  is  a  micrometer  valve,  which  when  opened  permits 
the  oil  to  drip  away  at  a  certain  speed.  This  causes  the 
float  to  fall  with  the  oil  in  the  cylinder,  and  to  drag  the 
wick  over  the  burner  roller  and  down  the  float  cylinder 
after  it,  so  that  a  fresh  surface  of  the  wick  is  presented 
continuously  for  combustion.  The  lamps  themselves  may 
be  divided  into  two  broad  classes — the  single-wick  and  the 
three-wick  respectively.  The  latter  obviously  emits  the 
more  brilliant  light,  and  is  the  type  which  is  coming  into 
more  extensive  use  at  the  present  time.  In  the  latest  type 
a  duplex  burner  is  employed,  and  this  has  been  found  to 
give  a  very  powerful  light  with  a  comparatively  low  oil 
consumption. 

The  light  is  generally  carried  at  the  top  of  a  lattice- 
work steel  tower.  A  support  of  this  character  can  be 
taken  to  pieces,  packed  within  small  compass,  and  trans- 
ported without  difficulty,  while  erection  is  simplified  and 
facilitated.  Seeing  that  a  large  number  of  these  beacons 
have  been  erected  on  headlands  along  the  wildest  stretches 
of  the  African  continent  and  the  loneliest  coasts  of  Australia, 


THE   WIGHAM   THIRTY-ONE    DAY  UNATTENDED   PETROLEUM    LIGHT. 

The  type  at  left  shows  the  lamp  carried  upon  a  cast-iron  pillar  ;  while  on  the  right  it  is  mounted 

upon  a  lattice  tower. 


WILLSON   GAS   AXD   WHISTLING   FLOATING 
LIGHT   OFF   EGG    ISLAND,    NOVA   SCOTIA. 


THE   WILLSON    "OUTER   AUTOMATIC,' 
HALIFAX,   NOVA   SCOTIA. 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  281 

where  the  methods  of  transport  are  restricted  to  cooHes 
or  mules,  this  method  of  packing  is  distinctly  advantageous. 
The  lamp  is  secured  to  the  top  of  the  tower,  with  the  float 
cylinder  of  the  lamp  depending  from  the  centre.  In  this 
arrangement,  as  a  rule,  a  small  tank  is  provided  into  which 
a  drain-pipe  empties  the  oil  dropping  from  the  drip-valve. 
In  this  way  the  oil  may  be  drawn  off,  filtered,  and  used 
again  in  the  float  cylinder.  In  some  instances  the  lamp 
is  mounted  upon  a  cast-iron  column,  in  which  case  the 
float  cylinder  and  the  oil-drip  tank  are  placed  within  the 
tube,  access  thereto  being  obtained  through  a  door. 

The  length  of  service  on  one  charge  varies  according  to 
the  situation  of  the  light.  If  in  a  very  exposed  and  in- 
accessible place,  it  may  be  required  to  burn  for  two  or 
three  months  without  attention.  Taken  on  the  average, 
however,  a  monthly  charge  has  been  found  to  offer  the 
greatest  advantages.  But  in  some  places  the  longer  interval 
is  unavoidable.  For  instance,  the  Wigham  light  which 
is  mounted  upon  the  extremity  of  the  Manora  breakwater 
at  Karachi  cannot  be  approached  for  three  months  at  a 
time  during  the  monsoon.  Under  these  circumstances  a 
one-hundred-day  service  is  imperative. 

The  lenses  are  of  the  dioptric  order,  consisting  of  six 
elements  built  up  into  a  strong  gun-metal  framework. 
The  internal  diameter  naturally  varies  with  the  size  and 
number  of  the  wicks,  and  ranges  from  10  inches  for  a 
i-|-inch  single  wick,  to  15  inches  in  the  case  of  a  if-inch 
three-wick  lamp.  In  the  larger  sizes  a  curved  plate-glass 
pane  is  fitted  outside  the  lens  as  a  protection  from  the  action 
of  the  weather.  These  storm-panes  are  set  in  copper  doors, 
so  that  the  glasses  may  be  easily  cleaned  and  polished  when 
the  lamp  is  being  retrimmed. 

The  maintenance  charges  are  guided  by  the  local  market 
values  of  materials  and  labour,  the  item  of  repairs  and 
renewals  being  practically  negligible.  So  far  as  oil  con- 
sumption per  month  is  concerned,  this  fluctuates  according 
to  the  type  of  lamp  used,  ranging  from  i^  pints  per  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  4-8  gallons  per  month,  in  the  case  of  a  i|^-inch 


282  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

single-wick  burner,  to  2^  pints  per  twenty-four  hours,  or 
8^  gallons  of  oil  per  month,  in  the  case  of  the  latest  if-inch 
duplex-wick  burner.  American  petroleum-oil,  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  0795,  gives  the  best  results  and  the 
brightest  and  clearest  flame.  Russian  and  other  heavier 
oils  generally  used  in  lighthouses  are  unsuitable.  In  view 
of  the  world-wide  operations  of  the  Standard  Oil  Company, 
however,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  procuring  adequate 
supplies  of  this  oil  anywhere  between  the  two  Poles. 

The  oil  used  in  the  float  cylinder,  as  mentioned  pre- 
viously, is  quite  distinct  from  the  burning  oil,  and  is  used 
only  to  support  the  float  to  which  the  wick  is  attached. 
As  the  oil  escapes  through  the  drip-valve,  it  may  be  allowed 
to  run  to  waste,  or,  what  is  far  preferable,  it  may  be  caught, 
filtered,  and  used  again  for  this  purpose,  to  bring  about  a 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  upkeep.  The  float  cylinder  of  a 
thirty-one-day  light,  irrespective  of  the  number  of  wicks, 
requires  the  same  quantity  of  oil  for  the  float  cylinder — 
9I-  gallons. 

The  advantages  of  the  unattended,  automatic  light  have 
been  appreciated  by  the  various  maritime  Powers,  and 
their  application  is  being  developed  rapidly.  They  are 
inexpensive  in  first  cost,  and  their  maintenance  charges  are 
very  low.  In  Sweden  a  second-order  light,  consuming 
6  cubic  feet  of  acetylene  gas  per  hour,  throwing  a  fixed 
white  light  of  4,000  candle-power,  and  visible  for  seventeen 
miles  in  clear  weather,  costs  about  £15,  or  $75,  per  annum ; 
while  the  smaller  lights,  with  a  300-millimetre  lens  and  a 
12-inch  burner  emitting  360  candle-power,  may  be  run 
for  £2,  or  $10,  per  annum,  the  low  cost  in  this  instance 
being  attributable  to  use  of  the  Dalen  flasher  and  sun-valve. 

The  cost  of  the  acetylene  gas  averages  fd.,  or  1^  cents, 
per  cubic  foot,  a  result  attributable  to  the  fact  that  Scandi- 
navia is  the  world's  largest  producer  of  carbide  of  calcium. 

The  Wigham  petroleum  system  has  proved  similarly 
economical  and  reliable,  and  has  been  installed  in  some 
of  the  wildest  corners  of  the  globe.  The  Congested  Districts 
Board   for   Ireland  have   established   a   number   of   these 


UNATTENDED  LIGHTHOUSES  283 

beacons  on  the  rugged  west  coast  to  assist  the  fishermen 
in  making  their  harbours  at  night.  Many  are  placed  in 
very  exposed  positions  on  headlands,  where  they  are  fre- 
quently swept  by  the  full  force  of  the  Atlantic  gales.  The 
Austrian  Government  has  adopted  the  principle  for  lighting 
the  dangerous  coasts  of  the  Adriatic  near  Trieste,  while 
the  shoreline  of  Jamaica  is  safeguarded  by  more  than 
sixteen  lights  of  this  type.  Many  of  these  lights  suffered 
severely  from  the  effects  of  the  earthquake  which  over- 
whelmed the  island  a  few  years  ago,  but  others  withstood 
all  the  shocks  successfully.  In  this  instance,  had  expen- 
sive and  massive  lighthouses  of  the  usual  type  been  erected, 
the  loss  would  have  been  considerable,  in  view  of  the  severity 
of  this  seismic  disturbance  and  the  widespread  destruction 
which  was  wrought.  These  lights  play  a  very  prominent 
part  in  the  guarding  of  the  southern  ocean,  the  Australian 
shores  being  protected  by  over  sixty  such  beacons,  many 
of  which  are  established  in  very  exposed  and  isolated 
positions  off  the  mainland. 

While  the  day  is  still  far  distant  when  expensive  graceful 
towers,  carrying  immensely  powerful  lights,  will  be  no  longer 
constructed,  the  perfection  and  utility  of  the  unattended 
light,  in  one  or  other  of  its  many  forms,  are  assisting  tangibly 
in  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  lighting  busy  shorelines 
adequately  and  inexpensively.  Structures  costing  tens  of 
thousands  sterling  in  future  will  be  restricted  to  important 
places,  especially  in  connection  with  sea-rocks,  such  as 
landfalls,  or  to  those  some  distance  from  the  land,  where 
a  fog-signal  station  must  be  maintained,  unless  the  example 
of  the  Platte  Fougere  land-controlled  station  becomes 
adopted. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  development  of  the  unattended 
Hght  for  service  on  land  positions  has  proceeded  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  floating  light.  This  may  be  described  briefly 
as  an  enlarged  edition  of  the  lighted  buoy,  which  is  such 
a  conspicuous  feature  of  our  harbours  and  estuaries.  Yet 
it  is  more  than  a  buoy.  It  can  fulfil  all  the  purposes  of  a 
light-vessel,  both  as  regards  the  emission  of  a  ray  of  light 
or  a  distinctive  sound,  so  that  both  audible  and  visual 
warning  are  given  simultaneously.  These  lights  likewise 
are  automatic  in  their  action,  and,  when  set  going,  require 
no  further  attention  for  some  time.  Nine  months  or  more 
are  often  permitted  to  pass  without  human  hands  touching 
them,  and  they  have  solved  some  very  abstruse  problems 
in  connection  with  coast  lighting. 

For  instance,  there  is  probably  no  such  lonely  stretch 
of  coastline  as  that  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska.  There 
is  only  one  large  port  north  of  Vancouver — Prince  Rupert — 
and  this  rising  hive  of  maritime  activity  is  550  miles  distant. 
The  coast  is  as  wild  as  that  of  Norway,  which,  indeed,  it 
resembles  very  closely,  bristling  as  it  does  with  fjords  and 
islands,  with  rugged  cliffs  rising  abruptly  from  the  water 
to  a  height  of  several  hundred  feet.  Navigation  at  night 
is  extremely  hazardous,  as  the  path  leads  by  devious  ways 
through  deep  channels  intersecting  the  outer  barriers  of 
islands,  where  fogs  hang  low  and  thickly.  The  captain 
has  to  pick  his  way  carefully,  determining  his  course  by 
timing  the  period  between  the  blast  of  his  siren  and  its 
echo,  as  it  is  thrown  from  headland  to  headland.  As  the 
passenger  traffic  developed,  the  masters  of  the  vessels 
entrusted  with  so  many  human  lives  felt  the  increased 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES  285 

responsibility  keenly,  and  agitated  for  more  adequate 
protection.  The  erection  of  lighthouses,  even  of  the  most 
economical  type,  would  have  entailed  huge  expenditure 
by  both  the  United  States  and  Canadian  Governments, 
while  the  question  of  maintenance  would  have  bristled 
with  searching  problems. 

Accordingly,  it  was  decided  to  adopt  the  floating  auto- 
matic system,  which  had  proved  eminently  satisfactory 
in  other  parts  of  the  world.  In  this  manner  a  highly 
successful  and  inexpensive  solution  of  the  difficulty  was 
found.  These  buoys  have  been  installed  at  all  the  most 
treacherous  points  leading  to  sounds  and  canals,  as  the 
lochs  are  called,  and  have  been  found  in  every  way  equal 
to  the  simplest  type  of  attended  lighthouse.  The  southern 
coast  of  Nova  Scotia  has  been  protected  in  a  similar  manner, 
a  chain  of  automatic  lights,  spaced  ten  miles  apart,  having 
been  completed,  so  that  this  wild,  rugged  shore  is  patrolled 
very  efficiently  at  the  present  moment.  Other  countries 
have  not  been  dilatory  in  adopting  the  same  methods. 
Consequently,  to-day  the  automatic  floating  lighthouse  is  one 
of  the  handiest,  most  efficient  and  reliable  devices  for  assisting 
navigation  that  the  lighthouse  engineer  has  at  his  command. 

The  lights  assume  different  forms,  this  factor  being  in- 
fluenced by  position,  specific  duty,  and  local  conditions. 
Similarly,  the  character  of  the  illuminant  employed  also 
varies,  acetylene,  compressed  oil  -  gas,  petroleum,  and 
electricity,  being  utilized,  according  to  circumstances.  On 
the  whole,  however,  acetylene  gas  appears  to  be  the  most 
favoured  illuminating  medium,  inasmuch  as  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  carbide  of  calcium  has  undergone  such  marked 
improvement. 

When  Mr.  Thomas  L.  Willson  discovered  the  cheap 
process  for  the  manufacture  of  carbide  of  calcium  upon  a 
commercial  scale,  and  the  new  industry  became  placed 
upon  a  firm  footing,  it  was  only  natural  that  the  inventor 
should  realize  the  possibilities  of  applying  the  new  illu- 
minant to  the  assistance  of  navigation.  Acetylene  gas 
gives  a  brilliant  clear  light  of  intense  whiteness,  which  is 


286  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

capable  of  penetrating  a  great  distance.  Accordingly,  he 
set  to  work  to  devise  a  buoy  lighted  by  this  gas,  and 
able  to  carry  sufficient  storage  of  calcium  carbide  to  burn 
for  weeks  or  months  without  attention.  When  he  had 
completed  the  first  apparatus  of  this  character,  he  handed 
it  over  to  the  Marine  Department  of  the  Canadian  Govern- 
ment for  submission  to  any  test  that  they  might  consider 
expedient,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  limits  of  its  application. 
The  buoy  was  set  in  position  and  watched  carefully. 
Periodically  it  was  examined  to  ascertain  whether  over- 
hauling and  cleaning  were  necessary,  as  well  as  the  behaviour 
of  the  light  under  all  conditions  of  weather.  Captains  of 
vessels  passing  the  beacon  were  requested  to  pronounce 
their  opinions  upon  the  quality  of  the  light,  and  their  remarks 
concerning  its  range,  facility  with  which  it  might  be  picked 
up,  reliability,  and  so  forth,  were  carefully  marshalled  and 
digested  by  the  authorities.  Precisely  what  the  officials 
thought  of  the  invention  is  reflected  most  convincingly  by 
the  fact  that  to-day  over  300  lights  working  upon  this 
principle  are  stationed  in  Canadian  waters,  both  upon 
the  storm-bound  ocean  coasts  and  upon  the  wind-swept 
shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  waterways. 

The  Willson  buoys  are  absolutely  automatic  in  their 
operation.  All  the  impurities  in  the  gas  are  removed  by 
passing  it  through  a  special  purifier,  so  that  the  burner 
cannot  become  clogged  or  the  light  impoverished.  A  charge 
of  1,300  to  1,500  pounds  of  carbide  is  carried  within  the 
apparatus,  and  the  gas  is  generated  under  low  pressure. 
The  lantern  is  fitted  with  a  Fresnel  lens,  so  that  the  light 
is  condensed  into  an  intensely  powerful  and  penetrating 
horizontal  beam.  One  prominent  feature  is  that  the  candle- 
power  of  acetylene  gas  is  seven  times  as  high  as  that  of 
compressed  oil-gas,  while  the  reservoir  of  a  given  size  will 
contain  this  equivalent  of  more  light.  The  candle-power 
of  these  floating  lights  obviously  varies,  the  largest  size 
being  capable  of  emitting  a  beam  of  1,000  candle-power, 
this  flame  being  the  maximum  that  the  lens  will  stand 
without  breaking. 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES 


287 


Fig.  16. — Sectional  Elevation  of  the  Willson  Automatic 
Floating  Light.     (See  next  page.) 


288  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  construction  and  the  principle  of  operation  are  ex- 
ceedingly simple,  as  may  be  gathered  from  reference  to 
Fig.  i6.  The  beacon  comprises  a  gas  generator  tube  of 
steel  (i),  which  is  supported  by  the  steel  float  chamber  (2), 
on  the  upper  side  of  which  is  placed  the  support  (3)  carrying 
the  lantern  (4).  Stability  is  insured  by  means  of  the 
counterweight  (6)  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  genera- 
tor tube.  A  few  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  latter  is 
a  diaphragm  (7),  fitted  centrally  with  a  conically-seated 
valve  (8)  which  is  mounted  on  a  stem  (9).  This  extends 
through  the  centre  of  the  generator  and  its  head  (10). 
The  upper  end  of  the  valve  stem  carries  a  hexagonal  nut 
(11),  while  the  stem  itself  at  this  point  has  a  keyway  cut 
into  it.  A  spline  is  fitted  into  the  generator  head  to  engage 
the  ke5rway,  and  when  the  nut  (11)  is  turned  to  close  or 
to  open  the  valve,  the  stem  itself  cannot  move  with  it, 
except  in  two  directions  only — up  or  down.  The  nut  itself 
cannot  be  turned  too  far,  in  which  event  it  might  drop 
the  stem  and  valve,  as  there  is  a  stop-collar  (12).  Leakage 
of  gas  is  prevented  by  a  cap  (14),  which  is  screwed  into 
the  generator  head  and  sealed  with  a  rubber  washer.  This 
cap  is  sufficiently  long  to  permit  the  valve  stem  to  be 
raised  or  lowered  so  as  to  adjust  the  movement  of  the  valve. 
The  stem  of  the  valve  is  protected  from  the  carbide  by 
enclosure  within  a  tube  (13),  which  works  through  a  guide 
bar  (24)  bolted  to  the  side  of  the  generator  tube.  A  grid 
(23)  is  fitted  in  the  centre  of  the  diaphragm  (7)  and  sur- 
rounding the  valve  (8),  so  as  to  prevent  small  pieces  of 
carbide,  which  may  pass  through  the  grate  (16),  from  falling 
into  the  water,  and  thereby  being  wasted.  The  steel  grate 
upon  which  the  carbide  rests  is  attached  to  the  inside  of 
the  generator,  a  short  distance  above  the  diaphragm.  The 
grid  (23)  also  acts  as  a  valve  seat,  and  is  provided  with  a 
rubber  packing  (15),  which  is  held  in  a  groove  in  the  seat, 
and  projects  a  sufficient  distance  to  make  a  good  joint  with 
the  valve  (8)  when  it  is  closed,  even  if  the  valve  happen  to 
be  foul. 

The  carbide  of  calcium,  in  the  form  of  large  crystals 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES  289 

measuring  about  8  by  4  inches,  is  placed  in  the  generator 
tube  when  the  beacon  is  immersed  in  the  water,  the  valve  (8) 
being  opened  and  the  valve-cap  (14)  screwed  down.  In 
the  centre  of  the  counterweight  (6)  is  an  orifice  through 
which  the  water  enters  from  the  outside,  and  passes  through 
the  open  valve,  to  come  into  contact  with  the  carbide 
resting  upon  the  grate.  Gas  is  generated  instantly,  to 
ascend  through  the  carbide  into  the  purifying  chamber  (5), 
where  all  deleterious  matter  is  removed,  the  gas  escaping 
thence  through  the  small  aperture  (17)  and  pipe  (18)  to 
the  lantern,  to  which  the  supply-pipe  is  connected  by  the 
aid  of  the  coupling  (19). 

Of  course,  at  times  gas  is  liable  to  be  generated  more 
rapidly  than  it  can  be  consumed.  What  happens  ?  The 
apparatus  is  not  provided  with  facilities  to  receive  the 
surplus  gas.  Being  unable  to  escape  upwards  through  the 
generator  tube,  it  collects  at  the  bottom,  and  as  the  pressure 
increases  it  gradually  forces  the  water  away  from  the  carbide, 
so  that  generation  ceases,  and  is  not  resumed  until  the  surplus 
gas  has  been  absorbed,  when  the  water  once  more  is  able  to 
come  into  contact  with  the  carbide.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  gas  generation  is  controlled  automatically,  and 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  gas  pressure  within 
the  plant  to  reach  a  disruptive  degree,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  when  it  exceeds  a  certain  limit  it  has  a  free  vent  from 
the  bottom  of  the  device,  where  the  water  normally  is 
permitted  to  enter  to  carry  out  its  designed  purpose. 

This  invention  has  been  utilized  for  a  wide  variety  of 
purposes,  from  the  lighting  of  harbours,  navigable  channels, 
rivers,  bays,  and  so  forth,  to  that  of  exposed  coasts.  The 
automatic  beacon,  properly  so  called,  has  a  tower,  which 
brings  the  focal  plane  to  an  elevation  varying  between 
50  and  100  feet,  this  tower  being  built  of  lattice  steelwork 
attached  to  the  top  half  of  the  buoy,  with  a  day  mark 
surrounding  the  lantern  gallery,  access  to  which  is  secured 
by  an  iron  ladder.  This  type  of  light  carries  a  sufficient 
storage  of  carbide  in  a  single  charge  to  keep  the  light  burning 
continuously  for  about  forty  weeks.     In  this  instance  the 

19 


290  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

only  modification  from  that  already  described  is  that  the 
water  for  the  production  of  the  gas  is  admitted  into  the 
top  instead  of  to  the  bottom  of  the  generator.  When  an 
excess  of  gas  occurs,  the  pressure  thereof  drives  the  water 
away  from  the  carbide  until  the  surplus  has  been  consumed. 
Another  type,  somewhat  smaller,  carrying  a  charge  sufficient 
for  nearly  six  months,  has  proved  highly  successful  as  a 
coastal  light,  some  thirty  beacons  of  this  class  being 
stationed  along  the  shore  of  British  Columbia.  The  only 
trouble  experienced  therewith  in  these  waters  has  been  due 
to  frost,  which,  solidifying  the  water  around  the  buoy,  has 
interrupted  the  designed  functions. 

But  probably  the  most  complete  and  useful  type  of 
Willson  acetylene  gas  beacon  is  that  in  which  the  Courtenay 
whistling  device  is  incorporated,  so  that  in  thick  weather 
audible  warning  of  the  danger  may  be  extended.  In  this 
instance  the  floating  chamber  which  supports  the  super- 
structure carrying  the  light  and  also  the  generator  tube, 
is  fitted  with  two  further  tubes  which  project  from  the  base 
like  huge  legs.  These  tubes  are  open  at  the  bottom,  but 
are  closed  at  the  top  except  for  a  connection  with  a  valve- 
casing,  which  is  fitted  with  a  ball-valve,  and  upon  which 
a  powerful  whistle  is  bolted.  Now,  if  the  buoy  is  lowered 
and  anchored  in  absolutely  still  water,  the  water  will  rise 
to  the  same  level  within  the  tubes  as  it  is  outside ;  but  when 
the  buoy  is  lifted  upon  the  crest  of  a  wave,  the  level  of  the 
water  falls,  so  that  the  air  space  within  the  tubes  is  increased. 
Air  enters  this  "augmented  space  through  the  ball-check 
inlet  valve  in  the  valve-casing.  When  the  beacon  falls, 
naturally  the  water  endeavours  to  maintain  its  level  within 
the  tubes,  and  therefore  the  air  which  was  admitted  into 
the  space  becomes  compressed,  to  be  expelled  through 
the  only  possible  vent — the  whistle — thereby  producing  a 
very  powerful  blast.  Thirty  of  these  combined  light  and 
whistling  buoys  have  been  strung  along  the  rugged  Nova 
Scotia  coast,  and  have  proved  highly  popular,  that  outside 
Halifax  harbour  being  known  colloquially  among  sea- 
farers as  the  "  Outer  Automatic." 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES  291 

Another  acetylene  system,  but  working  upon  a  better 
principle,  has  been  perfected  in  Sweden,  and,  indeed,  now 
has  been  adopted  universally,  owing  to  its  many  excellent 
features.  This  is  the  "  Aga  "  light,  which  is  the  invention 
of  Mr.  Gustaf  Dalen,*  and  which  has  been  brought  to  a  high 
stage  of  commercial  success  by  the  Gas  Accumulator 
Company  of  Stockholm.  I  have  pointed  out  the  one  ob- 
jection to  the  Willson  acetylene  automatic  light — namely, 
its  uselessness  when  the  surrounding  water  becomes  frozen. 
While  this  drawback  does  not  affect  its  sphere  of  utility  to 
a  noticeable  degree  in  Canadian  waters,  it  acts  somewhat 
adversely  in  other  seas  where  similar  conditions  prevail, 
but  where  the  navigable  channels  are  kept  open  by  ice- 
breakers, such  as,  for  instance,  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  Mr. 
Dalen  recognized  this  weak  point  in  any  system  wherein 
contact  with  water  is  responsible  for  the  generation  of  the 
gas,  and  accordingly  sought  for  a  superior  method.  Fortu- 
nately, the  perfection  of  a  new  means  of  handling  acetylene, 
by  French  inventors,  offered  the  complete  solution  of  the 
problem  in  a  practical  way.  The  principle  of  this  lies  in 
the  use  of  dissolved  acetylene,  which  is  perfectly  safe  from 
explosion,  and  can  be  handled  with  the  greatest  facility. 
The  gas  can  be  stored  in  cylinders  similar  to  those  used 
for  containing  oxygen  and  hydrogen  under  pressure,  gases 
which  are  easier  to  transport  than  carbide  of  calcium,  and, 
what  is  far  more  important,  climatic  conditions  do  not 
exercise  the  slightest  influence  upon  it. 

Dissolved  acetylene  may  be  stored  within  the  cylinder, 
or  accumulator,  as  it  is  called,  to  a  pressure  of  at  least 
ten  atmospheres,  and  at  this  pressure  it  contains  100  times 
its  own  volume  of  acetylene  gas.  The  accumulators  may 
be  made  of  any  desired  size,  this  factor  being  governed 
by  considerations  of  transport  and  application,  as  well  as 
of  the  consumption  of  the  burner. 

The  perfection  of  the  dissolved  acetylene  process  came 
as  a  great  boon  to  the  Swedish  lighting  authorities,  inas- 

*  The  humane  labours  of  Mr.  Dalen  received  recognition  by  the 
award  of  the  Nobel  Peace  Prize  in  1912. 


292  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

much  as  they  have  probably  the  most  difficult  stretch  of 
coastline  in  the  world  to  protect.  At  the  same  time,  owing 
to  the  wild,  exposed  character  of  many  of  the  points  which 
demanded  lighting,  a  perfect,  economical,  and  reliable 
automatic  system  was  in  urgent  demand.  Acetylene  was 
an  obvious  illuminant,  since,  while  the  country  is  deficient 
in  the  essential  resources  for  the  preparation  of  other  fuels, 
carbide  of  calcium  is  very  cheap,  Sweden,  in  fact,  being 
the  largest  producer  of  this  commodity.  The  Swedish 
Board  of  Pilotage  experimented  with  acetylene  lighting 
for  six  or  seven  years,  submitting  every  known  acetylene 
lighting  system  to  searching  practical  trials,  but  failed 
to  be  sufficiently  convinced  on  the  vital  question  of  re- 
liability. Freezing-up  was  the  most  pronounced  short- 
coming, but  when  dissolved  acetylene  appeared  as  a  com- 
mercial product  this  disadvantage  was  removed  completely, 
and  acetylene  was  adopted. 

Yet  dissolved  acetylene,  though  completely  successful, 
possessed  one  drawback.  It  was  expensive  as  compared 
with  oil-gas.  Accordingly,  there  was  great  scope  for  a 
means  of  economizing  the  consumption  of  the  fuel  without 
interfering  with  its  lighting  value  and  efficiency.  At  the 
same  time  a  superior  flashing  system  was  desired.  The 
methods  which  were  in  vogue  to  this  end  were  satisfactory 
so  far  as  they  went,  but  they  involved  a  considerable  useless 
consumption  of  gas. 

This  is  where  Mr.  Gustaf  Dalen  completed  one  of  his 
greatest  achievements.  He  perfected  a  flashing  apparatus 
wherein  the  gas  passes  to  the  burner  in  intermittent  puffs, 
to  be  ignited  by  a  small  invisible  pilot  light.  The  device 
was  tested  and  proved  so  successful  that  it  was  adopted 
throughout  the  service.  In  Swedish  waters  to-day  there 
are  127  aids  to  navigation  operating  upon  this  system, 
of  which  five  are  lightships.  The  success  of  the  invention 
in  the  land  of  its  origin  attracted  other  nations  to  its 
possibilities.  At  the  present  moment  over  700  lights, 
scattered  throughout  the  world,  are  working  upon  this 
principle. 


T      "T  ■"  T~Ti''      I  ;  ~    i'Wf~""      '~S 


Q     -2 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES  293 

If  a  beacon  throws  a  fixed  light,  unless  it  is  of  extreme 
power,  it  is  liable  to  be  confused  with  a  ship's  mast-light, 
a  fact  which  was  found  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  objections 
to  the  fixed  white  light  of  the  acetylene  aid  to  navigation. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  flashing  warning  must  be  of  such  a 
character  that  it  cannot  be  mistaken  for  the  twinkling  of 
a  brilliant  star,  or  of  a  light  which  has  nothing  to  do  with 
navigation.  This  is  where  the  "  Aga  "  flasher  emphasizes 
its  value.  It  throws  a  short,  powerful  gleam  at  brief 
intervals.  The  mariner  cannot  possibly  confuse  or  mis- 
construe it ;  the  regularity  of  the  flash  arrests  his  immediate 
attention,  and  its  purport  may  be  divined  instantly.  The 
apparatus  is  simple  and  highly  effective,  while  it  has  the 
advantage  that  the  periods  of  light  and  darkness  can  be 
altered  in  relation  to  one  another,  or  grouped,  as  desired. 

From  the  maintenance  point  of  view,  however,  the 
invention  is  of  far  greater  significance.  As  the  gas  is 
consumed  only  during  the  light  periods,  which  are  very 
brief  in  comparison  with  the  eclipse,  the  economy  effected 
is  very  appreciable.  When  the  apparatus  was  first  brought 
within  the  range  of  practical  application,  many  authorities, 
which  had  become  wedded  to  the  oil-gas  lighting  system, 
wherein  the  light  flashes  are  of  long  duration  in  comparison 
with  the  dark  periods,  maintained  that  the  Dalen  flash 
was  too  short  to  be  of  any  value.  They  disregarded  the 
fact  that  the  power  of  the  acetylene-gas  flash  is  about  seven 
times  as  intense  as  that  of  the  oil-gas  light.  For  instance, 
when  the  United  States  acquired  the  first  Aga  light  in  the 
autumn  of  1908,  the  authorities  demanded  either  a  charac- 
teristic signal  comprising  ten  seconds  of  light  followed  by 
five  seconds  of  darkness,  or  flashes  and  eclipses  of  equal 
duration — five  seconds. 

There  was  a  prejudice  against  short,  powerful,  and  oft- 
repeating  flashes,  mainly  because  their  advantages  were 
misunderstood.  Practical  experience,  however,  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  the  period  of  light  might  be  reduced 
very  considerably,  and,  as  a  result  of  prolonged  investiga- 
tions, the  Swedish  Board  of  Pilotage  adopted  a  character- 


294  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

istic  comprising  0"3  second  light  followed  by  darkness  for 
2*7  seconds.  This  has  become  known  since  as  the  "  one- 
tenth  flash,"  owing  to  the  luminous  interval  occupying 
one-tenth  of  the  combined  period  of  light  and  darkness. 
It  will  be  seen  that,  as  a  result  of  this  arrangement,  twenty 
flashes  are  thrown  per  minute. 

As  the  flame  is  lighted  for  only  one-tenth  of  the  signal 
period,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  saving  of  gas  amounts  to 
90  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  the  light  which  is  burning 
constantly.  Accordingly,  the  gas  charge  will  last  ten  times 
as  long  with  the  flashing  apparatus ;  consequently,  the 
accumulator  need  have  only  one-tenth  of  the  capacity  of  that 
for  a  similar  beacon  which  burns  constantly.  The  economy 
really  is  not  quite  90  per  cent.,  as  a  certain  volume  of  gas 
is  consumed  by  the  pilot  flame,  which  ignites  the  charge  of 
gas  issuing  from  the  flasher  burner.  This,  however,  is  an 
insignificant  item,  inasmuch  as  the  quantity  of  gas  burned 
by  the  pilot  light  does  not  exceed  one-third  of  a  cubic  foot 
per  twenty-four  hours. 

Not  only  has  this  highly  ingenious  system  been  adapted 
to  varying  types  of  buoys,  similar  in  design  and  range  of 
action  to  those  described  in  connection  with  the  Willson 
apparatus,  wherein  the  light  may  be  left  unattended  for  as 
long  as  twelve  months,  according  to  the  capacity  of  the 
accumulator,  but  it  has  also  been  applied  to  "light-boats" 
and  light-vessels.  The  "  light-boat  "  is  a  hybrid,  being  a 
combination  of  the  buoy  and  the  lightship,  and  was  devised 
to  meet  special  conditions.  Thus,  the  "  Gerholmen"  light- 
boat  stationed  in  the  mouth  of  a  Swedish  river,  where  the 
current  runs  exceedingly  strongly,  resembles  a  small  boat 
with  a  water-tight  deck.  From  the  centre  of  this  rises  a  steel 
tripod,  at  the  top  of  which  the  lantern  is  placed.  The  gas 
accumulators  are  stored  within  the  hull,  and  are  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  maintain  the  light  for  a  round  twelvemonth 
without  attention,  as  the  flashing  apparatus  is  incorporated. 

The  Aga  light  has  come  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
developments  in  lighthouse  engineering,  and  hasbeen  adopted 
extensively  throughout  the  world  in  connection  with  either 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES  295 

floating  or  fixed  aids  to  navigation.  The  United  States  have 
decided  to  adopt  the  system  exclusively  henceforth,  until  a 
further  progressive  step  is  achieved,  and  several  floating 
lights  of  this  type  have  been  acquired  already  to  guard  wild 
and  lonely  stretches  of  the  coastline. 

Here  and  there  attempts  have  been  made  to  apply 
electricity  to  inaccessible  lights.  The  most  interesting 
endeavour  in  this  direction  was  in  connection  with  the 
lighting  of  the  Gedney  Channel  from  the  open  Atlantic 
to  New  York  harbour.  This  formerly  constituted  the  only 
available  highway  for  the  big  liners,  and  it  is  exceedingly 
tortuous  and  treacherous — so  much  so  that  vessels  arriving 
off  Sandy  Hook  in  waning  daylight  invariably  anchored 
and  awaited  the  dawn  before  resuming  the  journey.  The 
great  difliculty  in  connection  with  Gedney' s  Channel  was 
the  distance  of  the  main  lights  on  shore,  the  direct  range 
at  one  part  being  over  thirteen  miles.  Consequently  the 
land  lights  were  of  little  utility  to  the  pilot. 

The  authorities  decided  to  convert  the  channel  into  an 
electric-lighted  waterway.  Buoys  were  laid  down  on  either 
side  of  the  thoroughfare.  They  were  of  the  spar  type, 
resembling  decapitated  masts  projecting  from  the  water, 
and  were  held  in  position  by  mushroom  anchors,  weighing 
4,000  pounds,  or  nearly  2  tons,  apiece.  Each  buoy  was 
crowned  with  a  100  candle-power  incandescent  electric 
lamp,  encased  within  a  special  globe  having  a  diameter  of 
5  inches.  An  electric  cable  was  laid  on  either  side  of  this 
street  and  connected  with  each  buoy.  The  first  section 
was  completed  in  1888,  the  electric  gleams  being  shed  for 
the  first  time  on  November  7  of  that  year.  The  system 
appeared  to  give  such  complete  satisfaction  that  it  was 
extended.  Altogether  six  and  a  quarter  miles  of  cable 
were  laid  down,  which  in  itself  was  no  easy  feat,  while 
prodigious  difficulties  were  experienced  in  its  maintenance, 
owing  to  the  severity  of  the  currents  and  the  treacherous 
character  of  the  sea-bed.  The  lights  were  controlled  from 
a  central  point  ashore,  and  the  idea  of  being  able  to  switch 
on  and  off  a  chain  of  aids  to  navigation  by  a  simple  move- 


296  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

ment  presented  many  attractive  features.  Although  navi- 
gation appreciated  this  improvement,  the  Great  White 
Waterway  did  not  prove  a  complete  success.  It  did  not 
possess  that  vital  element  of  complete  reliability  which  is 
so  essential  to  navigation. 

Compressed  oil-gas  has  been  employed  extensively  for 
unattended  floating  lights,  but  it  possesses  so  many  short- 
comings that  it  is  being  superseded  on  all  sides  by  acetylene, 
with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  countries  which  appear 
to  be  inseparably  wedded  to  this  princple.  It  is  expensive 
both  to  install  and  to  maintain,  while  the  "  radius  of  action  " 
— otherwise,  the  period  during  which  it  may  be  left  without 
human  attention — is  unavoidably  brief.  For  temporary 
purposes,  such  as  the  indication  of  a  submerged  wreck,  it 
is  efficient,  while  it  is  also  serviceable  for  accessible  posi- 
tions, but  it  is  not  regarded  as  being  a  satisfactory  system 
for  places  which  human  hands  cannot  reach  for  months  at 
a  time. 

Crude  petroleum  in  conjunction  with  the  Wigham  long- 
burning  petroleum  lamp,  wherein  the  flame  is  produced  from 
a  moving  wick,  has  been  adopted  widely.  Lights  installed 
upon  this  principle  may  be  left  for  ninety-three  days  at  a 
time  without  anxiety.  In  many  instances  the  Wigham  light 
is  mounted  upon  steel  boats  ;  in  other  cases  it  is  attached 
to  floating  wooden  structures.  The  British  Admiralty  in 
particular  is  partial  to  this  type  of  light,  and  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  it  has  proved  highly  serviceable  and  reliable. 

I  have  described  already  the  general  principles  and  features 
of  this  system.  When  it  is  applied  to  a  floating  beacon,  and 
it  is  desired  to  save  the  oil  dropping  from  the  drip  valve,  a 
tank  is  fixed  to  the  deck  of  the  floating  structure,  and  con- 
nected by  a  flexible  pipe  to  the  coupling  at  the  bottom  of 
the  float  cylinder.  A  universal  joint  is  attached  to  the 
connection  on  the  top  of  the  tank  to  prevent  the  pipe  being 
twisted  by  the  swinging  and  swaying  motion  of  the  lamp 
on  the  gimbals.  When  the  lamp  is  inspected,  the  oil  may 
be  pumped  out  of  the  tank,  strained,  and  used  time  after 
time  in  the  float  cylinder. 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES  297 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  this  type  of  floating  boat- 
lights  is  to  be  seen  in  Queenstown  harbour.  The  hull  is 
30  feet  in  length,  and  has  a  beam  of  11  feet.  On  this, 
within  a  conical  structure  measuring  y^  feet  high  and  6|-  feet 
in  diameter  at  the  deck,  is  mounted  the  lantern.  Although 
the  lamp  is  exposed  to  drenching  seas  and  heavy  storms, 
it  has  never  yet  failed,  a  fact  which  conclusively  points  to 
its  efficiency.  It  rides  well,  and  the  lamp  is  kept  much 
drier  than  the  lights  on  ordinary  buoys,  according  to  the 
observations  of  the  engineer  responsible  for  its  maintenance. 
In  this  case  the  focus  of  the  light  is  brought  12  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. 

Probably  the  most  compelling  illustration  of  the  utility 
of  the  automatic  beacon  is  offered  by  the  unattended  light- 
ship. The  Otter  Rock  vessel  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
examples  of  this  development.  It  was  designed  by  Messrs. 
D.  and  C.  Stevenson,  and  comprises  a  substantial  steel  hull, 
the  deck  of  which  is  covered  so  that  the  interior  is  absolutely 
water-tight.  The  craft  is  provided  with  a  central  and 
heavy  bilge  keels,  so  as  to  reduce  rolling  to  the  minimum. 
Two  heavy  steel  bulkheads  divide  the  craft  into  three  water- 
tight compartments,  in  the  centre  of  which  two  large  welded- 
steel  gas  tanks  are  stowed.  These  are  of  sufficient  capacity 
to  feed  the  light  for  several  months  without  replenishment. 
The  light  is  mounted  upon  a  steel  tower  placed  amidships, 
which  brings  the  focal  plane  25  feet  above  the  water.  The 
gas  is  fed  from  the  tanks  to  the  lantern  through  the  tower, 
a  valve  reducing  the  pressure,  while  a  ladder  enables  the 
attendants  to  climb  to  the  lantern  gallery  to  adjust  the 
burner  and  flame,  and  to  clean  the  lenses,  upon  the  occasion 
oitheir  periodical  visits. 

The  gas  cylinders  are  charged  from  the  supply-ship 
through  flexible  hoses,  the  gas  being  compressed  to  about 
180  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  light  is  of  sufficient  power 
and  elevation  to  be  seen  from  a  distance  of  some  twelve 
miles.  The  beacon  gives  not  only  a  visual,  but  also  an 
audible  warning.  On  the  deck  of  the  boat  a  bell  is  mounted, 
this  being  rung  not  only  by  the  motion  of  the  ship,  in  the 


298  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

manner  of  a  bell-buoy,  but  also  by  the  gas  on  its  passage 
from  the  tanks  to  the  lantern,  the  bell  being  fitted  with  two 
clappers  for  this  purpose.  The  gas  in  passing  from  the 
tank  enters  a  receptacle  having  a  flexible  diaphragm,  which, 
as  it  becomes  filled  with  gas,  is  naturally  pressed  outwards. 
On  this  is  mounted  a  central  metal  piece,  which  is  connected 
to  a  rod  and  lever.  As  the  diaphragm  is  forced  outwards, 
it  moves  the  rod  and  actuates  the  lever,  which,  when  the 
diaphragm  falls,  return  to  their  normal  positions.  Attached 
to  this  mechanical  arrangement  is  the  bell-clapper,  which 
alternately  is  lifted  and  dropped  upon  the  dome  of  the  bell, 
thereby  causing  it  to  ring.  After  the  gas  has  performed  its 
duty  in  raising  the  clapper  lever  and  rod,  it  passes  to  the 
lantern  to  be  consumed.  Thus,  while  the  light  gleams 
brightly  and  steadily,  the  bell  rings  with  unerring  regularity 
— about  three  times  per  minute — day  and  night  for  months 
on  a  single  charge  ;  both  must  continue  in  operation  until 
the  supply  of  gas  is  expended.  The  success  of  this  inter- 
esting and  novel  lightship  has  been  responsible  for  similar 
installations  in  other  similarly  wild  and  exposed  positions 
where  approach  is  uncertain  and  often  impossible  for  weeks 
at  a  time. 

One  misadventure  befell  the  Otter  Rock  light-vessel, 
which  is  moored  in  an  open  position  over  the  rock  of  that 
name  near  Islay,  although  it  was  not  the  fault  of  either  the 
system  or  the  designing  engineers.  There  was  a  flaw  in  one 
of  the  shackles,  and  while  the  ship  was  sawing  and  tugging 
at  her  anchors  during  a  heavy  gale  the  flaw  asserted  itself, 
the  shackle  broke,  and  the  lightship  got  away.  She  was 
recovered  with  some  difficulty,  after  having  drifted  about 
twenty  miles.  She  was  found  stove  in,  having  embraced 
the  rocks  during  her  wayward  journey,  but  otherwise  was 
unharmed.  She  was  towed  into  port,  repaired,  and  then 
taken  back  to  her  station,  where  she  was  secured  more  firmly 
than  ever,  while  her  chains  were  closely  inspected  to  make 
assurance  doubly  sure.  No  repetition  of  the  accident  has 
occurred  since,  and  the  Otter  Rock  lightship,  tethered  firmly 
to  the  rock,  rides  gales  and  calms,  throwing  her  welcome 


Photo  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Edmondsons  Ltd.,  Diiblin. 
THE   LANTERN    USED    IN   THE   WIGHAM   AUTOMATIC   PETROLEUM    BEACON. 

The  circular  shallow  reservoir  contains  the  Lurning-oil,  which  feeds  the  wick  as  it  moves  towards 
the  burner,  and  also  acts  as  a  deck  on  which  the  lantern  is  built.  In  this  ingenious  system  the 
flame  is  not  produced  at  the  end  of  the  wick  as  in  the  ordinary  lamp,  but  from  the  flat  side  of  the  wick, 
which  is  moved  continuously  in  a  horizontal  direction  over  a  small  roller.  By  this  means  a  light  of 
uniform  intensity  is  obtained,  as  carbonization  cannot  occur. 


■i^—f. 


FLOATING  LIGHTHOUSES  299 

rays  and  droning  her  musical  warning  the  whole  year  round 
as  steadily  and  efficiently  as  if  she  had  a  crew  aboard. 

A  similar  lightship  was  built  for  the  Trinity  House 
authorities  from  the  designs  of  their  engineer,  Sir  Thomas 
Matthews,  for  service  on  the  English  coast.  This  boat, 
built  of  steel,  measures  65  feet  in  length,  by  18^  feet  beam 
and  10^  feet  depth,  with  the  lantern  carried  at  the  point  of 
an  open  steel  pyramidal  structure,  rising  sufficiently  high 
above  the  boat's  deck  amidships  to  bring  the  focal  plane 
26  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water,  thereby  giving  it  a 
visible  range  of  some  ten  miles.  The  boat  is  provided  with 
two  holds,  in  which  the  gas  reservoirs  are  placed,  the  total 
gas  capacity  being  about  1,500  cubic  feet — enough  to  keep 
the  light  burning  for  one  hundred  days. 

This  light  is  of  the  revolving  type,  and  the  rotation  of  the 
apparatus  is  accomplished  very  ingeniously.  Before  the 
gas  passes  to  the  burner,  it  drives  a  tiny  three-cylinder 
engine,  the  crank-shaft  of  which  is  connected  to  the  revolving 
apparatus  through  gearing.  The  speed  of  the  turntable  is 
kept  constant  by  the  aid  of  a  governor,  and  the  apparatus 
works  so  smoothly  and  perfectly  that  there  is  not  the 
slightest  divergence  from  the  rate  at  which  the  apparatus 
is  set.  As  the  gas  emerges  from  the  engine,  it  passes  to  the 
burner  to  be  consumed.  By  means  of  a  novel  apparatus, 
should  anything  befall  the  little  motor  or  the  rotating 
mechanism,  the  light  does  not  drop  out  of  service.  In 
that  event  the  gas  flows  directly  to  the  burner,  the  only 
difference  being  that  a  fixed  instead  of  a  revolving  light  is 
emitted. 

When  the  Scandinavian  liner  Norge,  while  on  her  way  to 
the  United  States  in  July,  1904,  fouled  the  terrible  Rockall 
and  lost  750  of  her  passengers,  the  outcry  about  the  absence 
of  all  means  of  indicating  this  spot  to  the  navigator  vibrated 
round  the  world.  Yet  it  was  a  useless  agitation.  Rockall 
is  a  no-man's  land  ;  no  nation  has  planted  its  flag  upon  its 
cone  of  granite  ;  no  Power  cares  whether  it  continues  its 
harvest  of  human  lives  or  otherwise.  The  various  countries 
appear  to  think  that  it  is  too  much  off  the  map  to  be  worthy 


30O  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

of  a  moment's  thought ;  its  existence  is  brought  home  only 
by  a  holocaust. 

After  this  heartrending  disaster,  Messrs.  D.  and  C. 
Stevenson  adumbrated  a  promising  means  of  indicating 
this  awful  graveyard  to  the  seafarer.  They  suggested  that 
two  automatic  unattended  lightships  should  be  constructed, 
and  that  one  should  relieve  the  other  every  six  months. 
The  project  was  eminently  practicable,  but  every  country 
seemed  to  shirk  responsibility  in  the  expense  of  its  adop- 
tion. But  Rockall  is  a  unique  danger  spot ;  in  no  other 
part  of  the  known  world  does  such  a  formidable  isolated 
peak  of  granite  rise  from  the  ocean  depths,  for  it  is  in  mid- 
Atlantic,  i6o  miles  west  of  St.  Kilda,  and  290  miles  off  the 
Scottish  mainland.  It  may  be  away  from  the  great  steam- 
ship lanes  of  the  Atlantic,  yet  a  vast  volume  of  shipping 
passes  within  sight  of  its  curious  formation.  Seeing  that 
the  foremost  maritime  Powers  defray  between  them  the  cost 
of  maintaining  the  light  off  Cape  Spartel,  surely  the  dictates 
of  humanity  are  sufficiently  pressing  to  secure  the  indica- 
tion of  this  islet.  The  maintenance  of  an  unattended 
automatic  beacon,  such  as  Messrs.  Stevenson  advocated, 
would  not  impose  a  severe  strain  upon  the  treasuries  of  the 
leading  Powers  of  the  world,  whose  interests  are  associated 
intimately  with  the  North  Atlantic. 

The  perfection  of  the  unattended  lightship,  working  auto- 
matically, has  provided  the  lighthouse  engineer  with  a 
powerful  weapon  for  marking  the  most  exposed  and  out-of- 
the-way  danger  spots.  When  the  new  development  is 
carried  to  its  uttermost  lengths,  no  graveyard  of  the  ocean, 
no  matter  how  remote  and  inaccessible,  need  be  without 
means  of  warning  shipping  of  its  M^hereabouts. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE 

The  life  of  the  guardian  of  a  blazing  signpost  of  the  coast 
is  much  the  same  the  whole  world  over.  It  is  unavoidably 
monotonous  under  the  best  conditions.  Each  succeeding 
day  and  night  brings  a  similar  round  of  toil,  with  very  little 
variation.  There  are  the  same  duties  to  be  performed  in 
strict  accordance  with  routine,  and  under  normal  circum- 
stances there  are  many  idle  hours  which  have  to  be  whiled 
away  as  best  one  can.  On  the  mainland,  especially  in  the 
South  of  England,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States, 
the  loneliness  and  monotony  are  not  felt  so  keenly  by  the 
wardens  of  the  light,  as  in  many  instances  they  are  in  close 
proximity  to  ports  and  towns,  where  a  little  welcome  relaxa- 
tion may  be  obtained  during  the  rest  spells ;  while  in  the 
summer  evenings,  if  the  lights  should  be  only  a  few  miles 
away  from  civilization,  visitors  are  frequent.  Again,  the 
keepers  as  a  rule  live  with  their  families  in  cosy  solid  build- 
ings, and,  having  a  stretch  of  garden  flanking  their  homes, 
can  expend  their  hours  of  leisure  to  advantage. 

On  the  isolated,  lonely  rock,  however,  the  conditions  are 
vastly  different.  The  average  person,  when  regarding  on  a 
calm  day  the  tall  slim  outlines  of  a  tower  rising  from  the 
water,  is  apt  to  regard  the  life  of  those  responsible  for  keep- 
ing the  light  going  as  one  enveloped  in  romance  and  peace, 
far  removed  from  the  trials  and  worries  of  the  maelstrom  of 
civilization.  But  twenty-four  hours  on  one  of  these  beacons 
completely  dispel  all  romantic  impression.  The  gilt  of 
fascination  wears  away  quickly,  and  the  visitor  recognizes 
only  too  forcibly  the  terrible  desolation  of  it  all,  and  admires 
the  little  band  of  men  who  watch  vigilantly  over  the  deep 
for  the  guidance  of  those  who  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships. 

301 


302  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

The  keepers  of  such  stations  are  marooned  as  completely 
as  any  castaway  on  a  barren  island.  In  many  instances 
they  cannot  even  signal  to  the  shore.  If  anything  should  go 
wrong,  they  must  wait  until  a  ship  comes  in  sight,  to  com- 
municate their  tidings  by  flag  signals.  If  the  call  is  urgent, 
say  for  illness,  and  the  passing  boat  carries  a  doctor,  she  will 
heave  to,  and,  if  conditions  permit,  will  launch  a  boat  to 
carry  the  medical  man  to  the  rock  to  administer  aid.  If  it 
is  a  matter  of  life  or  death,  the  ship  will  take  the  man  off. 

As  may  be  imagined,  upon  a  sea-rock,  owing  to  the 
slender  proportions  of  the  tower,  the  quarters  are  inevitably 
very  cramped,  with  no  facilities  for  the  men  to  stretch  their 
limbs.  The  manner  in  which  space  is  economized  in  the 
small  circular  apartments  is  astonishing.  The  essential 
furniture  is  built  to  the  wall,  and  liberal  cupboard  space  is 
provided,  the  governing  consideration  being  to  provide  the 
men  with  as  much  open  space  as  the  restricted  circumstances 
will  permit.  The  only  exercise  that  the  men  can  obtain  in 
the  open  air  is  upon  the  narrow  shelf  forming  the  landing 
platform,  or  the  narrow  gallery  around  the  lantern.  In  the 
majority  of  circumstances  it  is  less  than  that  provided  for 
the  benefit  of  a  prisoner  in  an  exercise  yard. 

The  lamp  is  lighted  at  dusk,  and,  unless  it  is  a  fixed  white 
light,  the  clockwork  driving  the  occulting  and  revolving 
mechanism  has  to  be  wound  up.  Seeing  that  this  entails  the 
lifting  of  a  ton  or  so  up  the  vertical  cylinder  in  which  the 
weight  travels,  this  is  no  mean  task  in  itself. 

Unremitting  vigilance  has  to  be  maintained  while  the 
lamp  is  burning.  It  demands  attention  from  time  to  time, 
while,  should  anything  serious  go  wrong,  the  attendant  must 
bring  the  reserve  lamp  into  service  without  a  moment's  loss 
of  time  and  without  interruption  of  the  ray. 

"  The  light  must  not  go  out  !"  That  is  the  inflexible  rule 
of  all  attended  lights  between  the  two  Poles.  Even  if  it 
failed  only  for  a  minute,  the  circumstance  would  not  escape 
observation.  Some  vessel  would  detect  the  breakdown  ;  it 
would  be  recorded  in  the  captain's  log-book.  When  he 
touched  the  first  port,  intimation  would  be  sent  to  the 


THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  303 

organization  responsible  for  the  beacon,  setting  forth  the 
fact  that  on  such  and  such  a  night,  at  a  certain  hour,  this 
light  was  not  showing  in  accordance  with  the  official  light 
list,  or  was  giving  a  warning  different  from  that  laid  down 
for  the  guidance  of  the  seafarer.  An  inquiry  would  be 
instituted  immediately  to  ascertain  the  reason,  and  the 
light-keeper  probably  would  find  himself  in  an  awkward 
position,  although  months  might  have  elapsed  since  the 
incident. 

There  is  nothing  haphazard  about  the  control  of  lights. 
The  circumstances  are  too  serious  to  permit  the  slightest 
deviation  from  hard-and-fast  regulations.  The  passing 
mariner  is  entirely  dependent  upon  these  blazing  guardians, 
maybe  from  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles  or  more.  He  has  his 
chart  wherewith  he  is  able  to  steer  his  way,  but  he  must 
have  certain  marks  to  guide  him  at  night,  so  that  he  may  be 
sure  of  his  course  and  position.  Accordingly,  every  light- 
house possesses  some  individual  characteristic  in  regard  to 
its  light.  As  explained  elsewhere,  it  may  be  a  group  flash, 
an  occulting  flash  of  a  distinctive  nature,  a  revolving  light 
which  completes  a  revolution  once  in  a  certain  period  of 
time,  or  a  fixed  blaze. 

Fortunately,  the  men  watching  over  the  lights  appreciate 
the  gravity  of  their  responsibility,  and  are  reliable  to  an 
heroic  degree.  Each  is  a  man  picked  for  the  duty,  who  is 
not  appalled  by  loneliness,  and  is  of  unimpeachable  pre- 
cision. Of  course,  accidents  will  happen,  but  dereliction  of 
duty  is  criminal,  because  it  may  bring  about  loss  of  life. 
Carelessness  on  the  part  of  a  light-keeper  precipitated  the 
loss  of  the  steamer  Victoria  when  crossing  the  English 
Channel  from  Newhaven  to  Dieppe  on  April  12,  1887.  The 
French  coast,  as  it  was  being  approached,  became  shrouded 
by  the  inexorable  fog-fiend.  The  captain  lost  his  way, 
although  he  knew,  from  the  time  he  had  been  steaming,  that 
he  must  be  perilously  near  the  French  shore.  He  listened 
for  the  droning  of  the  fog-siren  mounted  on  Pointe  d'Ailly, 
but  in  vain.  He  sent  to  the  engine-room  to  ascertain 
the  number  of  revolutions  the  engines  had  made,  and  this 


304  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

convinced  him  that  he  must  be  close  inshore,  despite  the 
silence  of  the  fog-signal.  Thinking  that  he  might  have 
strayed  some  distance  east  of  Dieppe,  he  brought  his  vessel 
round,  and  then  crawled  slowly  ahead.  But  he  had  scarcely 
settled  into  his  forward  stride  when  there  was  a  crash — a 
terrible  splitting  and  crunching.  The  vessel  had  kept  a 
true  course,  and  now  had  hit  the  very  rocks  which  the  captain 
had  sought  to  avoid.  The  passengers,  being  ready  to  land, 
were  got  into  the  boats  and  pushed  through  the  dense  curtain 
for  land,  but  some  thirty  passengers  and  crew  were  never 
seen  again. 

The  subsequent  inquiry  revealed  an  amazing  breach  of 
duty  on  the  part  of  those  in  charge  of  the  light-station.  The 
head  lighthouse-keeper,  off  duty  at  the  time,  was  asleep  in 
bed,  but  his  wife  awoke  him  as  she  observed  the  fog  settling 
upon  the  water.  He  dressed  hurriedly,  and  rushed  to  see 
what  his  companion  was  doing.  This  official  had  failed 
lamentably  in  his  duties.  Instead  of  starting  the  boiler 
fires  to  raise  the  steam  to  work  the  siren  upon  the  first  signs 
of  the  approaching  enemy,  as  he  should  have  done,  he  had 
delayed  the  duty.  The  result  was  that  an  hour  was  wasted, 
and  during  this  interval  the  unfortunate  captain  took  his 
ship  upon  the  rocks.  To  make  matters  worse,  the  keepers 
did  not  perceive  the  wreck  until  some  two  hours  after  the 
disaster,  although  they  admitted  that  they  heard  the  cries 
of  people  an  hour  and  a  half  previously,  but  never  suspected 
the  cause  of  the  turmoil. 

The  man  on  watch  during  the  night  maintains  a  keen 
lookout.  The  faintest  signs  of  a  gathering  mist  are  suffi- 
cient to  cause  him  to  wake  his  assistant  to  manipulate  the 
fog-signal,  even  if  the  precaution  proves  to  be  unnecessary. 
"  It  is  better  to  be  safe  than  sorry,"  is  the  lighthouse-keeper's 
motto  ;  so  he  runs  no  risks. 

When  the  gathering  brightness  of  the  dawn  enables  the 
form  of  the  tower  to  be  identified  from  a  distance  of  several 
miles,  the  light  is  extinguished.  Heavy  curtains  are  drawn 
across  the  windows,  not  only  to  protect  the  lenses  from  the 
sun,  but  also  to  give  a  characteristic  colour  to  the  lantern. 


THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  305 

Thus,  by  daylight  a  lantern  may  appear  to  be  a  dull  red  or 
an  intense  black.  To  give  a  brilliant  light  by  night  and  be 
a  prominent  landmark  by  day  forms  the  dual  duty  of  the 
guardian  of  the  coast. 

When  the  lantern  has  cooled,  the  keepers  coming  on  the 
day  shift  have  to  clean  the  lamps  and  put  them  in  order 
for  service  the  following  evening.  Everything  has  to  be 
overhauled  and  got  ready  for  use  at  a  moment's  notice. 
The  oil  reservoirs  have  to  be  examined  and  charged,  and  the 
panes  of  glass,  with  which  the  lantern  is  glazed,  cleaned  and 
brightened.  The  reflectors  have  to  be  polished,  for  they 
must  be  kept  in  a  constant  state  of  mirror-like  brilliancy. 
All  brasswork  has  to  be  cleaned  and  polished  until  it  gleams 
like  burnished  gold,  while  the  rooms  must  be  washed  and 
kept  in  the  pink  of  condition,  free  from  the  smallest  specks 
of  dust. 

The  necessity  for  extreme  cleanliness  and  spotlessness  is 
emphasized  in  every  lighthouse.  The  inspector  has  a  highly- 
trained,  quick  eye  for  detecting  carelessness,  and  he  has  one 
instinct  developed  peculiarly — the  discovery  of  dust.  He 
draws  his  fingers  over  everything,  and  squints  quizzically  at 
an  object  from  all  angles.  Woe  betide  the  keeper  if  the 
slightest  trace  of  dirt  is  detected.  Then  the  inspector 
closes  the  other  eye,  and  the  keeper  receives  a  squint  which 
does  not  augur  well  for  his  future.  A  few  sharp,  pointed 
remarks  are  rasped  out,  and  it  is  not  long  before  the  relief- 
boat  comes  out  with  another  man. 

The  engineers  and  other  representatives  of  authority  are 
remorseless.  A  man  is  judged  from  apparently  trifling 
details.  If  he  permits  a  door-knob  to  become  sullied,  he  is 
just  as  likely  to  overlook  the  polishing  of  the  lenses,  or  to 
perform  some  other  vital  task  in  a  perfunctory  manner. 

One  of  the  Stevensons  achieved  a  peculiar  notoriety  among 
the  Scottish  keepers  for  his  unbending  attitude  in  this  con- 
nection. He  had  a  scent  for  dust  and  untidiness  developed 
as  keenly  as  that  of  a  mouse  for  cheese.  When  his  boat 
came  alongside  a  light,  and  the  keeper  stepped  forward  to 
extend  a  helping  hand,  the  eyes  of  the  engineer  scanned  him 

20 


3o6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

searcliingly.  If  the  man's  appearance  were  not  immaculate, 
trouble  loomed  ahead.  This  engineer  maintained  that  if  a 
man  were  indifferent  to  his  own  appearance,  and  permitted 
dust  to  collect  upon  his  own  clothes,  he  could  not  be  trusted 
to  maintain  the  delicate  apparatus  of  a  lighthouse  in  apple- 
pie  order  !  What  was  more  to  the  point,  the  engineer  gener- 
ally was  correct  in  his  deductions.  He  spared  no  effort  to 
place  the  most  responsible  lights  in  the  hands  of  men  above 
suspicion  in  regard  to  cleanliness.  Although,  as  this 
martinet  confessed,  nothing  pained  him  more  than  to  have 
words  with  any  of  his  keepers,  cleanliness  had  to  be  main- 
tained. 

When  the  keeper  has  completed  his  routine  duties,  he  is 
at  liberty  to  spend  his  leisure  according  to  his  inclinations. 
As  a  rule  the  men  turn  these  periods  to  advantage.  Reading 
is  a  popular  recreation,  and  the  authorities  maintain  a  cir- 
culating library,  the  books  being  changed  with  every  relief. 
But  the  men  could  accept  twice  as  much  literature  as  is 
available  at  present.  Here  a  word  should  be  said  concern- 
ing the  Lighthouse  Literature  Mission  and  its  work,  which  is 
international.  The  idea  was  conceived  by  Mr.  Samuel  H. 
Strain,  and  the  work  is  conducted  from  Belfast,  Ireland. 
The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  this  organization  is  that 
every  penny  received  is  turned  to  good  and  useful  purpose 
in  connection  with  the  object.  The  founder  conducts  it 
without  monetary  reward,  so  that  the  item  of  "  operating  " 
charges  does  not  swamp  the  greater  proportion  of  receipts, 
as  is  the  case  with  so  many  so-called  missions  in  other  fields. 
There  are  few  organizations  which  are  so  deserving  of 
financial  support, because  this  mission  brings  welcome  relaxa- 
tion to  a  hard-worked  community  whose  vigil  secures  the 
safety  of  those  who  travel  on  the  sea.  The  labours  of  Mr. 
Strain  are  highly  appreciated  by  those  who  keep  watch  and 
ward  in  seagirt  prisons,  and  the  mission  deserves  far 
stauncher  support  from  the  philanthropic  than  it  receives 
at  present.  Sympathizers  with  the  loneliness  of  the  light- 
house-keeper are  prone  to  think  that  these  men  are  in  dire 
need  of  spiritual  pabulum,  and  are  apt  to  send  literature  of 


THE    PUMPS   WHEREBY   THE   OIL   IS   LIFTED    FROM   THE    LOWEST    FLOOR 
TO   THE    LANTERN-ROOM. 


THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  307 

an  emphatic  goody-goody  nature.  But  the  keeper  of  the 
light  is  as  human  as  the  clerk  in  the  city.  He  is  so  accus- 
tomed to  the  company  of  Nature,  and  has  cultivated  such 
a  deep  respect  for  the  Master  of  the  Universe  during  his 
spells  of  duty,  that  he  welcomes  a  diversion  therefrom  in  his 
hours  of  leisure.  A  humorous  paper  is  more  welcome  than 
a  tract  on  the  evils  of  drink. 

When  the  weather  is  favourable  the  men  seek  a  little 
relaxation  in  fishing,  but  here  again  they  have  to  suffer 
considerable  denial,  as  the  tackle  invariably  becomes  inex- 
tricably entangled  with  the  rocks,  so  that  the  losses  exceed 
the  prizes.  In  the  United  States  the  greater  number  of 
the  keepers  maintain  a  garden  well  stocked  with  vegetables 
and  flowers.  The  tending  of  these  charges  carries  the  minds 
of  the  men  from  their  work  completely,  and  for  the  oppor- 
tunity to  practise  this  hobby  they  are  indebted  to  the  kind- 
ness of  the  Government,  which  supplies  seeds  free  of  charge. 

It  is  when  the  gale  is  raging  tumultuously  that  the  men 
in  the  tower  are  compelled  to  realize  their  position.  The 
waves  pound  the  rock  and  building  so  ceaselessly  and 
relentlessly  that  the  latter  trembles  and  shakes  like  a  leaf. 
At  times  the  din  is  so  deafening  that  the  men  cannot  con- 
verse ;  they  are  compelled  to  communicate  with  each  other 
by  signs.  The  waves  pick  up  stones  and  hurl  them  with 
terrific  force  against  the  lantern.  Occasionally  the  elements 
triumph  in  their  assault,  and  the  missiles  shatter  the  glass. 
To  step  out  on  the  gallery  in  the  teeth  of  a  blizzard  to  clear 
the  snow  away  demands  no  little  courage.  As  the  man 
emerges  upon  the  narrow  platform,  he  is  engulfed  in  the 
swirling  flakes,  and  often  is  pinned  against  the  masonry  so 
tightly  by  the  wind  that  he  cannot  move  a  limb  ;  at  other 
times  he  is  swept  almost  off  his  feet.  While  engaged  in  his 
freezing  task,  he  also  runs  the  risk  of  being  drenched  by  a 
rising  comber. 

The  men  on  the  lonely,  exposed  Tillamook  Rock,  off  the 
Oregon  coast,  have  had  more  than  one  occasion  to  respect 
the  storm-fiend.  One  night,  while  a  fearful  gale  was  raging, 
a  huge  mass  of  rock  was  torn  away  from  the  islet,  snatched 


3o8  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

by  the  waves,  and  thrown  high  into  the  air.  It  fell  with 
terrific  force  upon  the  dome  of  the  lantern,  splintering  the 
roof  and  smashing  the  light,  so  that  no  welcome  rays  could 
be  thrown  from  the  tower  again  that  night.  The  keepers 
at  once  set  to  work  with  the  fog-signal,  and  during  the  hours 
of  darkness  worked  like  slaves,  blaring  out  a  warning  by 
sound  which  they  were  unable  to  give  visually. 

Fortunately,  such  an  experience  as  befell  the  keepers 
of  the  American  Thimble  Shoal  light  is  very  rare.  This 
beacon  marks  the  shoal  of  that  name,  and  is,  or  rather  was, 
a  screw-pile  iron  lighthouse,  marking  ii  feet  of  water  at  the 
entrance  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  Virginia,  U.S.A.  On  Decem- 
ber 27,  1909,  the  keepers  were  immersed  in  their  tasks,  when 
there  was  a  terrible  crash  followed  by  a  dismal  rending  and 
splitting.  The  building  shivered  from  top  to  bottom.  The 
keepers  were  thrown  off  their  feet,  and  when  they  regained 
their  wits  they  found  that  the  schooner  Malcolm  Baxter 
Junior,  while  being  towed  by  a  tug,  had  blundered  into 
them,  and  had  carried  a  considerable  portion  of  the  building 
away.  The  impact  upset  the  light ;  the  scattered  oil  burst 
into  flame,  and  within  a  few  minutes  the  lighthouse  was 
blazing  like  a  gigantic  bonfire.  The  keepers  stuck  to  their 
posts,  and  endeavoured  frantically  to  extinguish  the  out- 
break, but  their  efforts  were  too  puny  to  make  any  impres- 
sion. At  last,  when  a  foothold  was  no  longer  possible  with 
safety,  and  under  extreme  pressure,  they  abandoned  their 
charge.  When  the  flames  had  completed  their  destructive 
work  the  lighthouse  presented  a  sorry  sight,  being  a  mass  of 
broken  and  twisted  ironwork.  A  wooden  tower  was  erected 
with  all  despatch,  and  a  fog-signal  was  installed,  so  that 
the  men  could  carry  on  their  duties  while  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  station  was  hurried  forward. 

The  keepers  turn  their  hands  to  strange  occupations. 
Fretwork,  wood-carving,  poker-work,  and  similar  hobbies, 
are  practised  freely.  A  few  devote  their  leisure  to  intel- 
lectual improvement  to  fit  them  for  other  walks  in  life. 
The  keeper  of  Windward  Point,  Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba, 
devoted  his  energies  to  studying,  and  obtaining  diplomas  in, 


THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  309 

mechano-therapy  and  suggestive  therapeutics,  as  well  as 
becoming  proficient  in  Esperanto.  The  keepers  of  two 
other  American  lights  set  themselves  to  the  mastery  of 
jurisprudence,  and  in  due  course  resigned  their  positions 
and  rented  offices  in  the  city,  where  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  they  built  up  very  remunerative  legal  practices.  As 
a  rule  the  lighthouse-keeper  is  an  expert  handy-man,  as  he 
is  compelled  to  complete  a  whole  list  of  duties  in  addition 
to  maintaining  the  lights.  In  the  summer  the  metal  and 
wooden  lights  have  to  be  given  a  coat  of  paint,  while  plumb- 
ing and  other  displays  of  skill  in  metal  have  to  be  carried 
out,  even  if  only  temporarily. 

The  calling  is  exceedingly  healthy,  which  accounts  for  the 
immunity  from  illness  which  these  men  enjoy.  Also,  as  a 
rule,  the  land-lights  are  set  amidst  wild  romantic  surround- 
ings. Some  years  ago  a  number  of  American  families,  in 
the  search  for  a  quiet,  health-restoring  rest,  were  in  the  habit 
of  spending  their  vacations  at  lighthouses,  to  the  financial 
profit  of  the  keepers.  Eventually,  however,  the  authorities, 
fearing  that  the  keeper  might  be  distracted  from  his  duties, 
issued  a  summary  order  forbidding  this  practice,  much  to 
the  disgust  of  the  men,  and  "  attractive  lighthouse  apart- 
ments "  became  a  thing  of  the  past.  In  Great  Britain  an 
order  was  issued  that  "  no  ale  or  other  intoxicating  liquor 
be  allowed  to  be  sold  in  any  lighthouse."  The  precise 
reason  for  this  strange  ordinance  is  not  quite  clear,  but  it 
is  significant  to  note  that  it  came  into  force  immediately 
after  the  disastrous  fire  at  the  Leasowe  lighthouse,  on  the 
Wirral  shore. 

The  lighthouse  invariably  is  an  object  of  attraction  among 
the  general  public,  but  this  interest  seldom  goes  to  the 
length  narrated  by  a  keeper  of  one  of  the  West  Indian 
lights.  One  night  two  of  the  men  at  this  particular  station 
decided  to  hunt  for  red  crabs  on  the  beach  below.  They 
started  off  with  a  hurricane  lamp,  but  were  astonished,  when 
they  gained  the  foreshore,  to  see  a  large  sloop  hard  and  fast 
on  the  reef,  although  the  night  was  beautifully  clear  and  the 
light  was  burning  brilliantly.    With  much  effort  the  keepers 


3IO  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

got  out  their  dory,  put  off  to  the  wreck,  and  endeavoured 
to  get  the  sloop  out  of  her  uncomfortable  position,  but, 
finding  her  too  well  fixed,  took  off  the  passengers.  The 
survivors  were  housed  in  the  keepers'  quarters  until  next 
morning,  when  they  were  succoured.  The  head-keeper 
asked  the  captain  how  he  managed  to  get  into  such  a  posi- 
tion, and  to  his  surprise  learned  that,  as  the  passengers  were 
anxious  to  obtain  a  clear  close  view  of  the  light,  the  master 
had  stood  inshore,  not  knowing  that  the  reef  over  which 
vigil  was  mounted  ran  out  far  into  the  water.  That  navi- 
gator paid  dearly  for  his  attempt  to  satisfy  curiosity.  His 
sloop  broke  up,  since  she  was  impaled  too  firmly  to  be 
salvaged. 

It  is  not  often  that  the  utter  loneliness  and  monotony  of 
the  daily  round  unhinges  a  keeper's  mind,  but  this  awful 
fate  overtook  the  warden  of  a  somewhat  isolated  American 
light.  The  man  had  served  with  Admiral  Dewey  off  Manila, 
and  upon  his  return  home  the  Government  placed  him  in 
charge  of  a  station  as  an  occupation  for  the  evening  of  his 
life,  and  as  a  recompense  for  faithful  service.  He  settled 
down  with  his  wife  and  family,  but  the  isolation  soon  began 
to  affect  his  brain.  For  days  he  would  absent  himself  from 
the  light,  which  would  soon  have  failed  had  it  not  been  for 
the  unswerving  devotion  of  his  wife  and  the  assistance  of 
one  of  two  friends  living  in  the  locality.  They  spared  no 
effort  to  keep  the  beacon  burning,  lest  the  authorities  might 
hear  about  the  keeper's  strange  behaviour,  and  deprive 
him  of  his  charge,  and,  incidentally,  of  his  livelihood.  In 
due  course  the  incident  did  reach  the  authorities,  and,  not 
knowing  what  was  the  matter  with  the  man,  they  took 
action  accordingly.  As  the  keeper  entered  the  station  after 
one  of  his  inexplicable  expeditions  of  a  fortnight's  duration, 
he  was  arrested  for  desertion.  He  was  examined  promptly 
by  two  doctors,  who  found  him  hopelessly  insane,  and  was 
incarcerated  in  an  asylum,  where  in  the  course  of  a  few  days 
he  became  a  raving  lunatic. 

Often  the  keepers,  although  only  condemned  to  imprison- 
ment for  a  certain  period  at  a  time,  have  to  tolerate  a  longer 


THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  311 

stay,  owing  to  the  relief-boat  being  unable  to  approach  them. 
In  some  instances  the  delay  may  run  into  five  weeks  or 
more.  During  the  winter  the/elief  of  the  Eddystone,  Long- 
ships,  Wolf,  Fastnet,  Skerryvore,  and  Dhu-Heartach  lights 
is  always  a  matter  of  extreme  uncertainty.  Although  the 
men  have  to  provide  themselves  with  supplies,  a  reserve  is 
maintained  at  the  station  by  the  authorities  for  such  emer- 
gencies. Even  some  of  the  land  stations  are  not  approach- 
able readily.  There  is  the  Punta  Gorda  light-station  on 
the  Californian  coast,  the  situation  of  which  is  wild  and  for- 
bidding. There  is  a  landing  about  eight  miles  above  the 
station,  but  it  is  extremely  precarious.  Still,  unless  a  cer- 
tain element  of  risk  is  accepted  in  coming  ashore  here,  it  is 
necessary  to  face  a  tramp  or  stage  journey  of  nearly  fifty 
miles  across  country  in  order  to  gain  the  lighthouse. 

The  lighthouses  in  the  Red  Sea  are,  perhaps,  among  the 
most  unenviable  and  trying  in  the  world.  This  stretch  of 
water,  lying  between  two  blistered  coasts  of  sand,  is  no  more 
or  less  than  an  oven,  where  even  the  strongest  constitution 
finds  it  difficult  to  hold  out  for  long.  Moreover,  the  absence 
of  civilization,  owing  to  the  extreme  aridity  of  the  country, 
renders  the  life  exceptionally  depressing.  In  the  summer 
the  heat  is  wellnigh  intolerable.  The  thermometer  hovers 
between  95°  and  110°  F.  in  the  shade  throughout  the  twenty- 
four  hours,  so  that  night  brings  no  relief  to  the  oppressive- 
ness. 

At  some  of  the  stations  the  men  seek  a  little  diversion, 
and  incidentally  add  occasionally  to  their  pocket-money, 
by  shark-catching,  which  is  a  tolerably  profitable  pursuit, 
since  these  waters  are  thickly  infested  with  this  fish.  The 
jawbone  and  backbone  invariably  find  ready  purchasers, 
the  former  being  mounted  as  a  curiosity,  while  the  backbone 
forms  a  novel  and  serviceable  walking-stick. 

One  method  of  trapping  these  monsters  which  affords 
keen  delight  was  related  to  me.  The  requirements  are  an 
electric  battery,  some  rope,  a  few  feet  of  electric  wire,  a 
cartridge,  and  an  empty  box,  with  a  chunk  or  two  of  bad 
meat.     The  cartridge  is  fitted  with  an  electric  primer,  the 


312  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

wire  of  which  stretches  to  the  battery.  This  cartridge  is 
bilried  in  a  hunk  of  meat,  the  whole  being  dangled  from  a 
box — an  empty  cask  is  better — which  serves  as  a  float, 
while  a  rope  is  stretched  from  the  box  to  the  shore,  with  the 
electric  wire  spirally  wound  round  it.  A  short  length  of 
chain  is  preferable,  if  available,  to  attach  the  bait  to  the 
float,  but  a  short  piece  of  rope  will  do.  This  novel  line  is 
thrown  into  the  water,  and  the  man  keeps  his  eye  on  the 
float,  with  one  finger  on  the  battery.  The  hungry  shark, 
espying  the  tempting  morsel,  makes  a  grab  and  swallows 
it,  but  the  chain  prevents  him  tearing  away  with  it.  The 
pull  causes  the  float  to  disappear,  the  man's  finger  presses 
the  button,  and  the  trick  is  done.  There  is  an  explosion, 
and  pieces  of  shark  and  showers  of  water  fly  into  the  air. 
The  incident  is  all  over  too  quickly  for  the  fish  to  marvel 
about  the  strange  indigestibility  of  the  tainted  meat  he 
grabbed  so  greedily.  The  men  enjoy  this  sport  hugely  when 
it  can  be  followed,  as  they  regard  the  shark  with  intense 
detestation. 

Despite  the  vigilance  of  the  various  Powers,  slave-running 
is  still  a  lucrative  business  on  these  forbidding  coasts.  Now 
and  again  a  forced  labourer  gets  away  from  his  taskmaster, 
and  comes  panting  into  the  lighthouse  territory.  This  is 
sanctuary  to  the  hapless  wretch,  and  although  the  keepers 
invariably  receive  a  call  from  the  runaway's  master,  he 
meets  with  scant  courtesy,  while  his  demand  for  the  sur- 
render of  the  fugitive  is  answered  by  a  point-blank  refusal. 
The  slave-driver  may  storm,  threaten,  and  abuse,  to  his 
heart's  content,  and,  as  he  is  generally  a  past-master  in 
Arabian  invective,  the  keepers  have  to  listen  to  a  pretty 
tune.  But  the  slave  is  kept  in  the  lighthouse  until  the 
relief-tender  makes  its  periodical  call,  when  he  is  taken  back 
t  o  Suez  and  liberated. 

Fortunately,  owing  to  the  extreme  care  that  is  manifested 
by  the  authorities,  mishaps  at  a  lighthouse  are  few  and  far 
between.  The  men  are  supplied  with  rules  and  regulations 
which  are  drawn  up  with  an  eye  for  every  possible  emer- 
gency.    Yet  accidents  will  happen,  due  in  the  majority  of 


By  permission  of  the  ' '  Syren  and  Shiffing 
KEEPER   CLEANING  THE    LAMP  AFTER   IT    HAS   COOLED    DOWN. 


THE  LIGHT- KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  313 

instances  to  familiarity  bred  of  contempt.  The  majority 
of  these  calamities  occur  in  connection  with  the  explosive 
fog-signalling  apparatus,  although  every  device  is  adopted 
to  safeguard  the  men.  At  one  of  the  Scottish  stations  a 
keeper  was  manipulating  the  fog-signal,  but,  flying  in  the 
face  of  instructions,  he  caused  the  charge  to  explode  pre- 
maturely. The  man  escaped  injury,  but  the  detonation 
shattered  several  panes  of  glass  in  the  lantern. 

One  of  the  keepers  of  the  Rathlin  light,  on  Altacarry 
Head,  was  not  so  fortunate.  The  White  Star  Canadian 
liner  Megantic  was  rounding  the  corner  of  Ireland  to  enter 
the  last  lap  of  the  homeward  journey  one  Saturday  evening, 
when  the  captain's  attention  was  arrested  by  a  signal  of 
distress  flying  from  the  lighthouse.  The  interpretation  of 
the  signal  revealed  the  fact  that  a  doctor  was  wanted,  so, 
easing  up  the  ship,  he  lowered  a  boat,  and  the  doctor  was 
sent  away  to  the  island.  Upon  landing  he  found  one  of  the 
men  in  dire  straits.  He  had  been  cleaning  the  fog-gun, 
when  a  charge,  which  had  been  left  in  the  weapon  inad- 
vertently upon  the  last  occasion  it  was  used,  exploded. 
The  man's  arm  had  been  wrenched  off,  and  he  was  burned 
terribly.  It  was  a  stroke  of  luck  that  the  liner  hove  in 
sight  at  the  moment  she  did.  There  was  no  chance  of  ex- 
tending succour  to  the  injured  man  on  the  spot,  and  he  would 
have  died  before  a  doctor  could  have  been  summoned  by 
boat  from  Bally  castle,  nine  miles  away.  The  surgeon 
bound  up  the  man's  injuries,  lowered  him  into  his  boat,  and, 
on  regaining  the  liner,  placed  him  in  the  hospital,  where  he 
was  tended  until  the  vessel's  arrival  in  Liverpool,  where  he 
was  landed  and  placed  in  hospital. 

More  remarkable  was  the  accident  which  happened  at 
the  Flannen  Islands  light-station  in  1900  ;  it  remains  an 
unsolved  mystery  to  this  day.  This  is  one  of  Scotland's 
lonely  lights,  mounting  guard  over  a  group  of  islets  fifteen 
miles  off  the  Hebrides.  On  December  26  the  relief-tender 
approached  the  station  on  her  usual  fortnightly  visit,  but,  to 
the  amazement  of  those  on  board,  no  signs  of  the  keepers  or 
the  usual  signals  were  to  be  seen,  while  the  lantern  was  not 


314  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

dressed  in  its  daylight  garb.  The  crew  landed  hurriedly, 
wondering  what  was  amiss.  They  found  the  lighthouse 
absolutely  deserted  ;  not  a  sign  of  any  of  the  three  keepers 
was  to  be  seen  or  heard.  They  examined  the  log,  and  found 
that  the  light  had  not  been  burning  for  some  days,  the  last 
entry  being  made  about  4  a.m.  nearly  a  week  previously. 
The  rock  was  searched,  but  yielded  no  clue  to  the  mystery 
of  the  complete  disappearance  of  the  men.  The  light  had  not 
been  abandoned  ;  it  had  simply  burned  itself  out.  It  was  a 
fortunate  circumstance  that  very  little  shipping  frequents 
these  seas  during  the  winter,  or  there  would  have  been  one 
or  two  marine  disasters,  as  the  islands  are  often  wrapped 
in  fog. 

It  is  surmised  that  one  of  the  men  ventured  outside  on  to 
a  rocky  ledge  in  the  early  hours  of  the  morning.  According 
to  the  log,  a  vicious  storm  was  raging  at  the  time,  and  prob- 
ably in  the  darkness  the  man  was  swept  off  his  feet  and 
carried  into  the  sea.  The  second  keeper  on  duty,  marvel- 
ling at  the  non-return  of  his  assistant,  evidently  had  roused 
his  other  companion,  and  the  two  had  instituted  a  search  in 
the  storm,  only  in  turn  to  be  caught  by  a  wave  and  carried 
away. 

In  Great  Britain,  since  i860,  men  only  have  been  em- 
ployed by  the  Trinity  House  Brethren  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  lights,  but  in  the  United  States  women  still  are  en- 
gaged in  this  duty.  Some  of  the  British  lights  have  been 
controlled  by  one  family  through  two  or  three  generations. 
It  was  only  a  few  years  ago  that  a  Darling  retired  from  the 
vigil  on  the  Longstones  of  Fame  Islands,  the  scene  of  Grace 
Darling's  heroism,  while  for  a  century  and  a  half  one  family 
kept  the  South  Foreland  light  faithfully.  The  Casquets 
light  off  Alderney,  in  the  Channel  Islands,  was  maintained 
by  one  family,  some  of  the  children  spending  the  whole  of 
their  lives  on  the  rock,  son  succeeding  father  at  the  post  of 
duty. 

On  the  American  coast,  however,  women  are  more  exten- 
sively employed.  Seeing  that  many  of  the  lights  are  burned 
in  a  low  tower  projecting  from  the  dwelling-house,  this  cir- 


THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  315 

cumstance  may  be  readily  understood,  as  the  duties  beyond 
the  maintenance  of  the  light  are  not  exacting.  One  of  the 
most  notable  instances,  however,  is  the  Point  Pino  light  at 
the  entrance  to  Monterey  Bay,  on  the  Californian  coast,  the 
guardianship  of  which  has  been  in  feminine  hands  for  the 
past  thirty  years.  For  something  approaching  half  a  cen- 
tury a  woman  maintained  the  Michigan  City  harbour  light 
on  the  Great  Lake  of  that  name.  Indeed,  the  associa- 
tions were  so  deep-rooted  and  long  that  the  beacon  became 
popularly  known  as  "  Miss  Colfax's  light,"  after  the  name 
of  its  keeper.  Even  when  she  attained  the  age  of  eighty 
years  she  was  as  active  and  attentive  to  her  charge  as  on 
the  day,  in  1861,  when  she  first  assumed  responsibility  for 
its  safe-keeping. 

In  those  times  there  was  a  beacon  established  on  the  end 
of  the  wooden  pier,  which  railed  off  an  area  of  the  restless 
lake  for  the  purposes  of  the  inland  port.  Those  were  stren- 
uous days.  Her  home  was  on  shore,  and  every  night  and 
morning  she  tramped  the  long  arm  of  woodwork  to  light  and 
extinguish  the  lamp.  Lard-oil  was  used,  and  during  the 
winter  the  food  for  the  lamp  had  to  be  heated  to  bring  it 
into  a  fluid  condition  before  she  set  out  from  home.  It  was 
no  easy  matter  struggling  along  on  a  blusterous,  gusty 
evening,  with  a  pail  of  hot  oil  in  one  hand  and  a  lamp  in  the 
other,  over  a  narrow  plank.  Often,  when  a  gale  was  raging, 
progress  was  so  slow  that  by  the  time  the  beacon  was 
reached  the  oil  had  cooled  and  congealed,  rendering  it  a 
difficult  matter  to  induce  the  lamp  to  burn.  Once  set  going, 
however,  it  was  safe  for  the  night,  as  the  heat  radiated  from 
the  burner  kept  the  lard  melted.  In  addition  to  this  lamp, 
there  was  another  light  in  the  tower  projecting  from  the 
roof  of  her  house,  which  had  to  be  maintained,  and  this, 
being  the  main  light,  was  the  more  important  of  the  two. 

In  1886  the  pier  tower  was  taken  out  of  her  hands  for 
ever.  A  furious  gale,  such  as  is  peculiar  to  these  inland  seas, 
and  which  cannot  be  rivalled  on  the  ocean  for  fury,  was 
raging.  At  dusk  she  started  on  her  usual  journey.  Time 
after  time  she  was  wellnigh  swept  off  her  feet,  so  that  she 


3i6  LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 

staggered  rather  than  walked,  for  the  spray  and  sand  fleck- 
ing her  face  nearly  blinded  her.  When  she  gained  the  tower 
she  paused,  and  observed  that  it  was  trembling  violently. 
Undismayed,  she  ascended,  lit  the  light,  and  tramped  back 
to  the  shore.  Scarcely  had  she  gained  the  mainland,  when, 
glancing  seawards,  she  saw  the  light  sway  from  side  to  side 
for  a  second  or  two,  and  then  make  a  dive  into  the  water.  A 
few  moments  later  a  crash  reverberated  above  the  noise  of 
the  storm  :  the  decrepit  pier  had  succumbed  at  last.  Hers 
was  a  lucky  escape,  but  she  hurried  home,  and  sat  by  the 
main  light  gleaming  from  her  roof  all  that  night,  apprehensive 
that  some  vessel  might  endeavour  to  make  the  harbour  and 
come  to  grief.  When  the  pier  was  rebuilt,  a  new  beacon  was 
placed  on  its  extremity,  but  its  upkeep  was  taken  over  by 
the  harbour  authorities,  leaving  only  the  shore  light  in  the 
trusty  woman's  keeping,  the  wicks  of  which  for  over  forty 
years  were  trimmed  and  lit  at  dusk,  and  extinguished  with 
the  dawn,  with  her  own  hands. 

During  the  migratory  season  of  the  birds  extraordinary 
sights  are  witnessed  around  the  light  at  night.  The  brilliant 
glare  attracts  enormous  flocks,  which  flit  to  and  fro.  As 
the  monster  flaming  spoke  swings  round,  the  birds,  evidently 
blinded  by  the  glare,  dash  with  such  fury  against  the  glass 
panes  of  the  lantern  as  to  flutter  to  the  floor  of  the  gallery 
with  broken  necks  and  wings,  while  large  numbers,  dazed  or 
killed,  fall  into  the  water.  The  birds  are  of  all  species,  and 
at  times  may  be  picked  up  by  the  basketful.  Then  the 
light-keepers  are  able  to  secure  a  welcome  change  in  their 
dietary.  Moths,  too,  often  hover  in  clouds  round  the  light, 
and  are  of  such  variety  that  an  hour  on  the  gallery  would 
bring  infinite  delight  and  rich  harvests  to  the  youthful  ento- 
mologist who  has  to  be  content  to  hunt  around  electric  lamps 
in  quiet  streets  at  night. 

While  the  lamp  is  burning,  time  cannot  drag,  owing  to  the 
multitude  of  details  which  compel  the  keeper's  constant 
attention.  The  official  log  has  to  be  kept  posted  with  a  host 
of  facts,  such  as  temperature,  barometric  readings,  Vv^eather 
conditions  as  they  vary  from  hour  to  hour,  behaviour  of  the 


THE  LIGHT-KEEPER  AND  HIS  LIFE  317 

lamps,  etc.  ;  while,  when  the  lighthouse  is  a  marine  signal- 
station  as  well,  passing  ships  have  to  be  signalled  and 
reported.  The  spell  of  labour  varies  from  four  to  five  hours 
or  more.  Obviously,  the  task  is  more  exacting  and  arduous 
in  the  winter  than  in  summer.  During  the  former  season  the 
lamps  have  to  be  lighted  as  early  as  3.15  p.m.,  and  are  not 
extinguished  until  eight  o'clock  the  next  morning.  In  the 
summer,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lamps  may  be  required  for 
less  than  six  hours  or  so.  In  northern  latitudes  where  the 
daylight  is  continuous  owing  to  the  midnight  sun,  the  light 
scarcely  seems  necessary.  Yet  it  is  kept  burning  during  the 
scheduled  hours  of  darkness. 

Thus,  night  in  and  night  out  the  whole  year  round,  a 
comparatively  small  band  of  faithful  toilers  keeps  alert  vigil 
over  the  dangers  of  the  deep,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who 
"  go  down  to  the  sea  in  ships,  and  do  their  business  in  great 
waters."  The  safety  of  thousands  of  human  lives  and  of 
millions  sterling  of  merchandise  is  vested  in  their  keeping. 
The  resources  of  the  shipbuilder,  the  staunchness  of  the 
ship,  the  skill  and  knowledge  of  the  captain — all  would  count 
for  nothing  were  it  not  for  the  persistent,  steady  glare  of  the 
fixed,  the  twinkling  of  the  occulting,  or  the  rhythmic, 
monotonous  turning  spokes  of  the  revolving  light,  thrown 
over  the  waste  of  waters  from  the  lighthouse  and  the 
lightship. 


INDEX 


Aberbrothock,  Abbot  of,  96 

Acetylene :  as  illuminant,  Dalengas, 
49,  274 ;  systems  for  floating  light- 
houses, 238,  278, 285-95  ;  cost  of  light- 
ing by,  282 ;  dissolved,  French  system 
of  using,  291  ;  use  in  Sweden,  291-94 

Acetylene  gun,  the,  68-71 

Admiralty,  the  :  adoption  of  the  siren, 
60-61  ;  use  of  the  Wigham  light,  296 

Adriatic  shoreline,  203 

"  Aga  "  principle  of  lighting,  274,  277, 
291,  293  ;  adopted  by  the  United 
States,  294-95 

Ailly,  Pointe  d',  303 

Ailsa  Crag,  system  of  fog-signalling, 
63-65,  66 

Alaska:  trade  of,  173;  controlled  by 
the  Lighthouse  Board,  206 ;  un- 
attended lighthouses,  277  ;  coast- 
line  284 

Alderney  coastline,  12-13 

Alexander,  Lieutenant  B.  S.,  the 
Minot's  ledge-light,  8,  179 

Alexandria,  Pharos  of,  2  3 

AUerton  Point  lighthouse,  6 

Altacarry  Head,  313 

Ambrose  Channel,  251 

American  Thimble  Shoal  lighthouse, 
308 

Amour  Point  light,  169 

Anderson,  Lieutenant-Colonel  William 
P.,  172,  174,  217 

Anglo-^axon,  Allan  liner,  wreck,  i6j- 
64 

Anticosti,  171 

Antifer,  Cap  d',  lighthouse,  39 

Antipodes,  the,  239 

Arbroath,  97 

Arena  Point,  204 

Argand  burner,  the,  47,  55,  79,  219 

Argyll,  Duke  of,  115  ;  lays  foundation- 
stone  of  Skerryvore,  105 

Ar-men  light,  Finisterre,  20-24 

Arthur,  Port,  214,  217 

Assyrian,  the,  wreck,  164 

Astoria,  13,  185,  188,  193 


Auckland  coastline,  236,  237,  238 
harbour,  238 
Islands,  239 
Auer,  Dr.  von,  the  incandescent  mantle, 

47-48 
Australia  :  lighthouses  of,  229-39  ;  un- 
attended lighthouses,  283 
Austria,  lighthouses,  48 

Bache,  General  Hartmann,  6t,  ;  Brandy- 
wine  Shoal  light,  200-201 

"  Back  lights,"  20 

Ballantyne,  A.,  the  Tillamook  Rock 
lighthouse,  185-95 

Ballycastle,  313 

Baltic  Sea,  unattended  lighthouses  of 
the,  274,  278,  291 

Bar  lightship,  Mersey,  240 

Barnard,  General,  the  Minot's  Ledge 
light,  178-82 

Barra  Head,  113 
Island,  113 

Barsier  rock,  269 

Bauld  Cape  light,  169 

"  Bay  of  the  Dead,"  Finisterre,  21,  22 

Beachy  Head  lighthouse,  24-27,  94 

Belfast,  306 

Bell  Rock  lighthouse,  9 ;  lighting,  53 ; 
fog-signals,  59  ;  the  reef,  96-97 

Bell-buoys,  68 

Belie  He,  51  ;  the  beacons,  169;  the 
Northern  light,  170-71  ;  the  Southern 
light,  169;  the  auxiliary  light,  169-70; 
isolation  of,  171 

Belle  He,  Straits  of,  162,  163,  169 

Bells  :  on  lighthouses,  58  ;  submarine, 
249-50 

Biscay,  Bay  of,  gales,  3-4 

Bishop  Rock  lighthouse,  38,  51,  81-87 

Black  Prince,  the,  in  Gascony,  4 

Black  Sea,  lighthouses  on  the,  18-19 

Blau  liquid  gas,  48-49 

"  Blowing-holes,"  62-63 

Bluff,  the,  236 

Bois  Blanc  Island,  211 

Bordeaux,  trade  of,  3-4 


318 


INDEX 


319 


Boston  Harbour :  lighting,  6,  33-4, 
196  ;  Minot's  Ledge  light,  176-82 

Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  unattended  light- 
houses, 268,  274 

Bounty  Islands,  239 

Bourdelles,  M. ,  investigations,  56,  219 

Brandywine  Shoal  light,  200-201 

Brebner,  Alexander,  117 

"Breeches-buoy,"  used  at  Tillamook 
Rock,  187-89 

Brehat,   Heaux   de,  Reynaud's   tower, 

149-53 
Isle  of,  149 

Bremerhaven,  132,  138,  139,  141 

Brett,  Cape,  lighthouse,  238 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  lighting  methods, 
29 

Bridges  and  Roads,  Department  of,  148 

Bristol  Channel :  the  Flat  Holme  light, 
7  ;  unattended  lighthouses,  278-79 

British  Columbia  coastline,  284 

Brittany  coastline,  148 

Brothers  light,  the,  234-35 

Bull  Rock  lighthouse,  39 

BuUivant  cableways,  25-26 

Bungaree  Norah.     See  Norah  Head 

Buoys :  bell  and  whistle,  68  ;  gas- 
buoys,  244  ;  the  Willson,  286-89  ; 
combined  light  and  whistling,  290 

Biisun,  226 

Byron  Bay,  232 
Cape,  232 

Cabrillo  Point  light,  205 

Calf  Rock  hght,  123 

California  coastline,  204 

Campbell,  General,  270 

Campbell  Island,  239 

Canadian  Marine  Department,  8  ; 
systems  of  building,  18-19;  fog-signal- 
ling apparatus,  66-68  ;  lighting  of 
the  coastline,  161-75  >  I'ghting  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  208-17  5  floating 
lighthouses,  286 

Caribou  Island  lighthouse,  216-17 

Carmel  Head,  94 

Carolina,  North,  240 

Carrington,  W.  H.  T.,  25 

Casquets  lighthouse  :  the  approach  to, 
12-13  ;  keepers  of  the,  314 

Castle  Point  lighthouse,  238 

Casuarina  Island,  55 

Catoptric  system  of  lighting,  28 

Centre  Island  lighthouse,  237 

Chance  Bros,  and  Co. :  systems  of 
lighting,  33,  36,  42,  55,  256 ;  the 
hyperradiant  method,  38-39  ;  lenses, 
40;  clockwork  mechanism,  43-44; 
the  incandescent  mantle,  48  ;  works 
carried  out  by,  53,  222 


Channel  I.^lands  coastline,  269 

Charles,  Cape,  200 

Chatham  Island,  239 

Chauffer,  the,  4-6 

Chesapeake  Bay  lights,  199,  200,  308 

Chicken  Rock  light,  9,  94,  238 

China,  coasL-lighting,  258-59 

Clear,  Cape,  121 

Coffin  Island,  171 

Cohasset  Rocks,  177 

Colchester  Reef  lighthouse,  210,  216 

Colfax  :   "  Miss  Colfax's  light,"  315-16 

Collinson,  Sir  Richard,  rocket  system 

invented  by,  58-59 
"  Colossus,"    the   Rothersand   caisson, 

138-9 
Colton  family,  the,  170 
Columbia  River,  183,  184,  185 
Colza  oil  as  illuminant,  46,  47 
Concrete,  reinforced,  use  of,  18,  174 
Cook's  Strait,  233,  234,  237 
Cordouan,  rocks  of,  4 
Tour  de,  4-5,  30 
Cornish  plunderers  of  the  Wolf  Rock, 

88 
Co.unna  lighthouse,  3 
Couedie,  Cap  de,  lighthouse,  55 
Courtenay,  whistling  device,  290 
Creach,  electric  light  at,  156 

Daboll,  C.  L.,  invention  of  the  trumpet 
fog-signal,  59,  60 

Dalen,  Gustaf :  the  sun-valve,  49  ; 
system  of  lighting,  274,  275,  291  ; 
unattended  lights,  269  ;  honour  for, 
291  note  ;  experiments,  292-93 

Danger  Point,  230 

Darling,  Grace,  95,  314 

Daudet,  Alphonse,  "  Phares  de  San- 
guinaires,"  93 

Delaware  Bay,  143,  199,  200 

Denmark,  coastline,  lighting,  48 

Detroit  River,  Lower,  208 

"  Deviline"  toy  whistle,  61 

Dewey,  Admiral,  310 

Dhu-Heartach  lighthouse,  9,  107,  113- 
20,  311 

Diamond  Shoal,  dangers  of,  2056  ;  the 
lightship,  251-53 

"  Diaphone,"  the,  67,  68,  165 

Dieppe,  303-304 

Differential  arc,  use  of,  227-28 

Dioptric  system  of  lighting,  37,  220 

Disappointment  Cape  lighthouse,  186 

Distances,  table  of,  52 

"  Divergence,"  39 

Dog  Island  lighthouse,  237 

Doty  burner,  the,  238 

"  Double-shell "  principle  of  construc- 
tion, 200 


320 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


Douglass,  Sir  James :  design  for  the 
new  Eddystone,  78-80  ;  preservalion 
of  the  Bishop  Rock,  86-87  '•  system 
of  lighting,  223 

Douglass,  William,  and  the  Fastnet, 
123 

Dover  Harbour  lightship,  245 

Dover,  the  pharos  at,  3 

Doyle  Fort,  271-74 

Druinmond  Castle,  wreck,  148 

Dues,  lighthouse,  4,  7,  239 

Duluth,  214 

Duncansby  Head,  108 

Dunedin,  N.Z.,  236 

Dungeness  light,  94 

Dunkirk,  249 

Earraid,  115,  116 

East  Cape,  N.Z.,  236 

East  Indies  Archipelago,  257 

Eddystone  lighthouse  :  lighting  of,  38 
41,  55  ;  fog-signals,  59  ;  description 
72,  82  ;  the  Winstanley  construction 
73-4  ;  John  Rudyerd's  lighthouse,  74 
75)  94  ;  Smeaton's  work,  75,  78,  80  , 
the  Douglass  tower,  78-80 ;  keepers 
of,  311 

"  Eddystones,"  72 

Edinburgh,  Duke  of,  79 

Egmont,  Cape,  233 

Electricity:  as  luminant,  50-51,  148, 
218,  295-96 ;  used  in  operation  of 
derrick,  159 

Eider  lightship,  249 

Erie,  Lake,  208,  216 

Estevan  Point  light,  174 

Fair  Isle  lighthouse,  39 

"  Family  of  Engineers  (A),"  8-9 

Faraday,  Professor,  218 

Farallon  Beacon,  205 

Farallon  Isles,  fog-signalling  on,  63 

Fame  Islands,  95,  314 

Faro,  the,  3 

Fastnet  lighthouse,    121 -31  ;    lighting, 

41  ;  keepers,  311 
Ferro-concrete,  use  in  construction,  18- 

19 
Feu-eclair,  the,  56 
Finisterre,  Cape,  3  ;  the  Ar-men  light, 

20-24 
Fire  Island  lighthouse,  250 
Fire  Island  lightship,  240,  242,  250 
Fisher's  Island  Sound,  203 
Flamborough  Head  light,  95 
Flannen    Islands    lighthouse,   9,    113  ; 

disappearance  of  keepers,  313-14 
Flat  Holme  light,  the,  7 
Florida  coastline,  201 
"  Focal  point,"  39 


Fog-signals  :  discharge  of  guns,  57-58  ; 
rockets,  58-59 ;  explosion  of  gun- 
cotton,  59  ;  the  Daboll  trumpet,  59- 
60  ;  the  siren,  60-62  ;  blowing-holes, 
62-63  ;  installation  on  Ailsa  Crag, 
63-66  ;  diaphone  on  Ailsa  Crag,  66- 
68  ;  the  acetylene  gun,  68-71  ;  dia- 
phone at  Cape  Race,  165  ;  Belle  He 
diaphone,  170 

Foix,  Louis  de,  4-5,  8 

Forfarshire,  the,  95,  314 

Forteau  Bay,  169 

Forth,  Firth  of,  lighthouses  in,  7,  218- 
19 

Fourteen  Foot  Bank,  132,  143-47 

Foveaux  Strait,  237 

Fowey  Rocks  lights,  201-3 

French  coast :  lighting  of,  148  ;  light- 
ships, 243,  249 

French  Lighthouse  Commission  (181 1), 
29 

Fresnel,  Augustin  :  system  of  lighting, 
28,  33,  286  ;  adopted  by  the  United 
States,  36 

Gap  Rock  lighthouse  and  signal-station, 
264 

Gas  Accumulator  Company,  of  Stock- 
holm, 49,  274,  291 

Gas  as  illuminant,  the  incandescent 
mantle,  47-48 

Gasfeten  tower,  274 

Gedney's  Channel,  lighting  of,  295-96 

General  Superintendent  of  Lights,  office 
of,  197-98 

Georgian  Bay,  216 

Gerholmen  light-boat,  294 

Germany  :  coastline  of,  lighting,  48, 
50-51  ;  the  lightship  service,  249-50 

Gironde  lighthouse,  19 

Gironde,  the,  rocks  of  the  estuary,  3-4 

Goodwin  Sands,  205,  240,  244-45, 
248 

Grand  Banks,  the,  163 

Grande  Braye  Rock,  296 

Grand  Trunk  Pacific,  173 

Granite,  use  of,  18 

Great  Lakes  of  North  America  ;  light- 
ing of  the,  27,  173,  208-17  ;  Light- 
house Board,  control  of,  206  ;  float- 
ing lighthouses,  286 

Green  Cape  lighthouse,  232-33 

"  Grouting,"  27 

Guantanamo  Bay,  308 

Guernsey  coast  lighthouse,  9,  16 ;  un- 
attended lights,  269 

Gun-cotton,  explosion  of,  58,  59 

Halifax  Harbour :  lights,  192  ;  :he 
"  Outer  Automatic,"  290 


INDEX 


321 


Halpin,  George,  the  Fastnet  lighthouse, 

121-23,  129 
Hand  Deeps,  79 
Hanois  lighthouse,  16 
Hargreaves,  Riley  and  Co.,  260 
Harkort,  Society  of,  Duisburg,  133-34; 

the  Rothersand  contract,  136-43 
Hatteras,  Cape  :  coastline,  147,  251-53  ; 

sandbanks,  205-6,  240 
Hauraki  Gulf,  238 
Hawaiian  Islands,  206 
Hebrides,  lighthouses  of  the,  112,  313 
Heligoland  lighthouse,   133,   218  ;  use 

of  the  rocket  system,  59  ;  the  electric 

installation,  224-26 
Hellespont,  Sigeum  lighthouse,  2 
Henlopen  Cape,  light,  199 
Hennebique  system,  260 
Henry,  Cape,  lighthouse,  20,  199-200 
Heve,  Cape,  lighthouse,  218,  219 
Hinemoa,    New    Zealand    Government 

steamer,  235,  236,  238 
Hoheweg  lighthouse,  138 
Hole-in-the-Wall,  Vancouver,  174 
Holland  coastline,  48 
Holmes,    Professor,    fog-horns,    60-62, 

64,  66,  218 
Holophotal  revolving  apparatus,  33 
Hong-Kong,  264 
"  Hoo-doo,"  91 
Horaine,  plateau  of,  153  56 
Horn,  Cape,  26S 
Hornum  light,  the  electric  installation, 

226-28 
Howe,  Cape,  230,  232 
Huddart  Parker,  liner,  wreck,  236 
Hudson  Bay  coastline,  268 
Hugo,   Victor,    "  The   Toilers   of  the 

Sea,"  269 
Hunting  Island  tower.  South  Carolina, 

19-20 
Huron,  Lake,  211 
Hynish  harbour,  107 
"  Hyperradiant,"    the,    37,    41  ;    the* 

quicksilver  trough,  42-43 


"  Ice-breakers,"  201 

"Ice-stoves,"  200-201,  210 

Inchcape.     See  Bell  Rock 

Ingrey,  Charles,  scheme  for  Ailsa  Crag, 

64,  66 
Invercargill,  237 
lona,  100 
Ireland,    Congested     Districts     Board 

beacons,  282-83 
Irish  lights.  Commissioners  of,  7  ;  the 

Fastnet,  123,  127 
Iron,  use  in  construction,  19-20 
Islay,  298 


Jamaica  coastline,  lighting,  283 
Japan,     coastline,     lighthouses,    9-10, 

257-58 
Java,  257 

Jersey  coastline,  243 
Jument  of  Ushant,  156,  160 

Karachi,  unattended  light,  281 
Kavanagh,    James,   the   Fastnet,    125 

128 
"  Kingdom  of  Heaven,"  92 

Labrador  coastline,  169,  268 

Lagerholmen  lighthouse,  278 

Lampaul,  Bay  of,  157 

Land's  End  coastline,  247 

Lard-oil  as  fuel,  46,  47 

Leasowe  lighthouse,  16  ;  fire  at,  309 

Lenses,  preparation,  39,  40 

Lewes,  Delaware,  144 

Lewis,  Isle  of,  113 

Lewis,  Winslow,  invention  of,  34,  36 

"  Light-boats,"  294 

Lighthouse  Board,  U.S.A.,  178-79 

Lighthouse  dues,  origin,  4,  7  ;  levy  of 
7,  239 

Lighthouse  Literature  Mission,  306 

Lighthouses,  construction  of,  174  ; 
wooden  towers,  1:98  ;  electric,  of  the 
world,  218-28  ;  unattended,  267-83  ; 
floating,  284-300 

Lighting  :  candles,  33  ;  Fresnal  system, 
28-33  i  holophotal  revolving  ap- 
paratus, 33  ;  hyperradiants,  33-41  ; 
sperm-oil,  46  ;  colza-oil,  46-47  ;  lard- 
oil,  46,  47  ;  petroleum,  47-48,  296- 
98  ;  paraffin,  47-48  ;  oil-gas,  48-49, 
296  ;  various  gases,  49-50  ;  electric 
lighting,  50-51,  148,  295-96  ;  acety- 
lene system,  69-71,  238,  291 

Light-keepers,  life  of  the,  301-17 

Lights  :  wood  or  coal  in  open  braziers, 
28 ;  tallow  candles,  28  ;  indentifica- 
tion  of,  32 ;  classification  of,  37, 
44-45  ;  "  divergence,"  39  ;  focal 
point,  39;  white  and  coloured,  45- 
46  ;  candle-power,  51,  53  ;  subsidiary, 
53-55  ;  duration  of  flash  in  revolving, 
55-56 

Lightships  :  the  Stevenson  unattended, 
70 ;  maintenance  of,  240-41  ;  de- 
scription, 241-42  ;  the  Minquiers 
light,  243-44  ;  average  crew  for, 
244-45  ;  incidents,  244-55  '■>  illumina- 
ting apparatus,  255-57 

"  Light  valve,"  the  Dalen,  275-78 

Lipson's  Reef,  55 

Little  Brewster  Island  lighthouse,  I96- 
197 

Lizard  Head,  72,  82,  94 

21 


322 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


Lizard  lighthouse,  94,  218 

Lloyd's,  signalling-station  at  the  Fast- 
net,  131 

Longfellow,  lines  to  Minot's  Ledge 
light,  176 

Longships  light,  82,  92,  311 

Longstones  lighthouse,  95,  314 

Louis  XIV.  and  the  Eddystone,  75 

Lundy  Island,  92 

Lufata,  sailing-ship,  wreck,  183 

Lusitatiia,  French  emigrant  steamer, 
wreck,  164 

Ly-ce-moon,  steamer,  wreck,  233 

Mackinac,  Strait  of,  211 

Macquarie,  tower,  231 

Magellan,  Straits  of,  268  ;  unattended 
lighthouses,  274-75 

Malacca  Straits  lighthouse,  257  ;  One 
Fathom  Bank,  259-64 

Malay  Peninsula,  257 

Malcolm  Baxter  Junior,  schooner,  col- 
lision with  the  lighthouse,  308 

Man,  Isle  of,  Chicken  Rock  light,  94 

Manacles,  wrecks  on  the,  7 

Manilla,  310 

Manora  breakwater,  the  Wigham  light, 
281 

Manora  Point  light,  Karachi,  39-41 

Maria  Van  Diemen,  Cape,  lighthouse, 
237.  238 

Marine  and  Fisheries,  Department  of, 
Canada,  171 

Marine     Department,    New    Zealand, 

233 
Matthews,  Sir  Thomas,  26 ;  light  de- 
signed by,  278-79,  299 
May,  Isle  of,  lighthouse,  7,  218-23 
Megantic,  White  Star  liner,  313 
Meldrum,  Sir  John,  the   North   Fore- 
land lighthouse,  81 
Mendocino,  Cape,  lighthouse,  204-5 
M^nier,  Henri,  171 
Mercury  float,  the,  42,  43,  56 
Meriten  (De),  dynamos,  221,  223 
Mersey  lightship,  240 
Mew  Island  lighthouse,  38,  41 
Mexico,  Gulf  of,  coastline,  201 
Michigan  City  Harbour  light,  315-16 
Michigan  Lake,  lighting  of,  208,  211, 

214,  215,  217 
Minches,  the,  112,  113 
Minnehaha,  wreck  of  the,  82,  83 
Minot's  Ledge  light,  11,  74,  204  ;  Cap- 
tain Swift's  tower,  176-78  ;  General 
Barnard's  structure,  1 78-82 
Minquiers  lightship,  243-44 
Mohegan  wreck,  7 
Moko  Hinou,  238 
Monach  Island  light,  113 


"  Monolithic"  method  of  construction, 

16-19 
Montagu  Island  lighthouse,  30-31 
Monterey  Bay,  315 
Morocco,  Cape  Spartel  light,  207 
Moye  system  of  lighting,  69 
Muckle  Flugga,  109- 112 
Mull,  Isle  of,  102,  115 
Mull  of  Kintyre,  108 
Murray,  Hon.  A.,  260 

Nantucket  Shoals  lightship,  250 

Navesink  lighthouse,  51,  218 

Needles  light,  the,  94 

New  Jersey  coastline,  218 

New  London,  Connecticut,  Race  Rock 

lighthouse,  203-4 
New  South  Wales,  lighthouses  of,  230, 

231,  232-33 
New   York    Harbour :    lighting,    218, 

295  ;  lightships,  251 
New  Zealand  :  system  of  lighting,  33  ; 

lighthouses  of,  229-30,  233-35  ;  the 

lighthouse  keepers,  235  ;  unattended 

lighthouses,  268 
Newfoundland  coastline,  162,  169 
Newhaven,  303 
"No.  87"  lightship,  251 
Norah  Head  lighthouse,  232 
Norderney  lightship,  242,  249 
Nore  lightship,  240,  242,  245 
Norge  liner,  wreck,  299 
Norman  Cape  light,  169 
North  Cape,  New  Zealand,  lighthouse, 

237.  238 
North  Foreland  light,  81 
North  German  Lloyd  Atlantic  liners, 

132,  137 
North  Island,  New  Zealand,  coastline, 

233 
North  Ronaldshay  lighthouse,  33 
North  Unst  lighthouse,  9,  109,  110-12 
Northern    lighthouses.   Commissioners 

of,  8-10,  37,  63,  64,  94,  96,  100-02, 

105,  109,  114,  219 
North-West  lightship  (Mersey),  240 
Nova  Scotia  :  Sable  Island  lighthouse, 

166  ;  floating  lighthouses,  285,  290 
Nuremberg,  tests  carried  out  at,  225-26 

Oil-gas,  compressed,  use  of,  48,  296 
One  Fathom  Bank  lighthouse,  259-64 
"One-tenth  flash,"  294 
Ontario  Lake,  217 
Oregon  coastline,  13,  195 
Orkneys  coastline,  108,  109 
Otter  Rock  lightship,  9,  297-99 
Ouessant,  He  d'.     See  Ushant 
"  Outer  Automatic,"  Halifax  Harbour, 
290 


INDEX 


323 


Outer  Diamond  Shoal  lightship,  147 
Outer  Minot  light,  177,  178 

Panama  Canal,  unattended  lighthouses, 

277 
"Panels,"  system  of  dividing  the  light 

by,  31-32 
Paraffin,  use  of,  47 
Paris  Exhibition  of  1867,  61 
Paris,  wreck  of  the,  7 
Parry  sound,  216 
Patents  granted  for  upkeep  of  beacons, 

5-6 
Pei  Yu-Shan  lighthouse,  39 
Pencarrow  Head  lighthouse,  234 
Pentland  Firth,  108 
Pentland  Skerries  light,  109 
Petroleum   gas,   use   of,   47,  48,   279, 

296-98 
Phare,  the  term,  3 
Phares,  Service  des,  19,  148,  219 
Pharos,  constructional  vessel,  1 10 
Pharos,  the,  Dover,  3  ;  of  Alexandria, 

2-3 

Philippines  coastline,  206 

Phoenicians,  beacons  erected  by  the,  3 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  the,  and  lighthouses,  6 

Pilotage,  Board  of,  Sweden,  experi- 
ments with  acetylene,  292,  293-94 

Pino  Point  lighthouse,  315 

Pladda,  Island  of,  64 

Planier  lighthouse,  219 

Platte  Fougere,  land-controlled  station 
of,  269-74,  283 

Pleasanton,  Stephen,  197-98 

Plenty,  Bay  of,  236 

Plymouth  Harbour,  72 

Plymouth  Hoe,  80 

Pee,  General  O.  M.,  Spectacle  Reef 
lighthouse,  211 -14 

Portland  Canal,  173 

Portland,  Duke  of,  lighthouse  on  the 
Isle  of  Man,  7 

Portland  stone,  used  for  building  Eddy- 
stone,  76 

Port  of  Dublin  Corporation,  121 

Potomac,  ice-shores  of  the,  200-201 

Potron,  Charles  Eugene,  generosity  of, 
157.  159-60 

Prince  Rupert,  port  of,  173,  284 

Pulsometer  Engineering  Company, 
Reading,  66 

Punta  Gorda  light-station,  311 

Puysegur  Point,  237 

Queenstown  harbour  floating  light,  297 

Race,  Cape,  lighthouse,  39,  43  ;  the 
lens,  40-41  ;  clockwork  mechanism, 
43  '•    fog-signalling    apparatus,    67  ; 


dangers  of,  162-64  ;  the  first  beacon, 
164-65  ;  the  new  beacon,  165 

Race  Rock  lighthouse,  203-4 

Ralph  the  Rover,  96 

Rame  Head,  72 

Rathlin  light,  313 

Rattray  Briggs  lighthouse,  9 

Ray,  Cape,  164 

Red  Rock  lighthouse,  210,  216 

Red  Sea  lighthouses,  3 1 1 

Rennie,   John,   the   Bell    Rock   light, 

97 

Reyes  Point,  205 

Reynaud,  Leonce,  tower  on  the  Heaux 
de  Brehat,  149-53 

Rhins  of  Islay,  113 

Ribiere,  8 

Rock  Island,  124 

Rock  of  Ages  lighthouse,  210,  214-15, 
216 

Rockall,  the,  299-300 

Rockets,  use  of,  58-59 

Rose  of  Mull,  the,  113 

Rothersand  lighthouse,  11,  218;  the 
first  attempt,  132-36;  work  of  the 
Society  Harkort,  136-43 

Round  Island  lighthouse,  39 

Royale,  Isle,  214 

Rudyerd,  John,  the  Eddystone  light- 
house, 74,  75,  92-93 

Russell  Channel,  the,  269-70 

Russian  lighthouse  authorities,  18 

Rutingen  lightship,  242,  249 

Sable  Island,  162  ;  description,  165-66  ; 

lighthouses  and  chief  station,  166-67  ; 

the  west  end  light,  167-68  ;  the  east 

end  light,  168 
St.  Agnes  light,  81 
St.  Catherine's  Downs,  223 
St.  Catherine's  lighthouse,  55,  94,  218  ; 

the  electric  installation,  223-24 
Si.  Clair,  Lake,  208 
St.  David's  Head,  92 
St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  164 
St.  Kilda,  300 
St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of,   163 ;  dangers, 

St.    Lawrence    River:    fog  -  signalling 
apparatus,  66-68  ;  entrance,  162  ;  the 
ice,  172;  lighting  of  the,  172-73 
St.  Malo  Harbour,  243 
St.  Mary's,  85 

St.  Peter  Port  lighthouse,  269-70 
Sambro  Island  lighthouse,  162 
Samoan  Islands,  American,  controlled 

by  the  Lighthouse  Board,  206 
San  Francisco  :  bay,  63  ;  coastline,  205 
Sand,  lighthouses  built  on,  132-47 
Sandbanks,  signposts  of  the,  240-56 


324 


LIGHTSHIPS  AND  LIGHTHOUSES 


Sandy  Hook  lighthouse,  199,  295 

Sarnia,  216 

Satara,  the,  wreck,  232-33 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  216 

Scammon's  Harbour,  212 

Schiller,  German  packet,  wreck  of,  86 

Schukert,  225 

Scilly  Island,  81,  82,  247 

Scotland  :  lighting,  50  ;  sea-rock  lights 

of,  96  ;  the  coastline,  108 
Scotsman,  Dominion  liner,  171 
Scott,  C.  W.,  and  the  Fastnc-t,  123-24, 

129 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  quoted,  100,  loi 
"Screw-pile  lighthouses,"  19,  83,  200- 

203,  261-62 
Sea-rock  lighthouses,  construction,  20 

et  seq. 
Serrin-Berjot  lamps,  221-23 
Seven  Hunters.     See    Flannen  Islands 
Seven  Stones  lightship,  242,  248-49 
Seven  Wonders  of  the  v.orld,  2 
Shark-catching,  311- 12 
Sherman,  General,  211 
Shetlands  coastline,  108-109 
Shovel,  Sir  Cloudesley,  82 
Sigeum  lighthouse,  on  the  Hellespont,  2 
Singapore,  257 

Siren,  the,  developments,  59-60,  I59 
Skerries  light,  94 
Skerryvore  lighthouse,  11,  59,  100-107, 

ii3>  3" 

Slave-running,  312 

Slight,  Mr.,  the  modern  siren,  62 

Smalls,  The,  92-93 

Smeaton,  John,  the  Eddystone  light- 
house, 8,  75-78,  80  * 

Smeaton,  the,  97-99 

Smith,  Thomas,  9,  219 

Solent,  the,  94 

Sound,  aberration  of,  68 

South  Carolina,  lighthouses  of,  19-20 

South  Foreland  lighthouse  :  lighting, 
38»  95  ;  electricity  adopted,  218-19; 
keepers  of  the,  314 

South  Island,  N.Z.,  coastline,  237 

South  Solitary  Island  lighthouse,  230, 
231 

South  Stock  light,  94 

Southey,  ballad  of  the  Bell  Rock,  96 

Spain,  early  beacons,  3 

Spartel  Cape  lighthouse,  207,  300 

Spectacle  Reef  lighthouse,  74,  210-14, 
215-16 

Sperm-oil,  as  luminant,  46 

"  Spider-web  braces,"  201 

Spurn  Point  lighthouse,  38-39 

Standard  Oil  Co.,  282 

Stannard's  Rock  lighthouse,  214,  216 

Start  Point,  94 


Stephens  Island,  233 

Stevenson,  Alan  :  "Skerryvore, "9, 100- 
107  ;  improvements  in  lighting,  32- 
33  ;  table  of  distances  by,  51-52 

Stevenson,  Charles,  9 

Stevenson,  David,  "North  Unst,"  9 

Stevenson,  David  and  Charles :  the 
acetylene  gun,  68-71 ;  the  unattended 
light,  269  ;  the  Platte  Fougere  fog- 
signal,  270-71  ;  the  Otter  Rock  light, 
297  ;  scheme  for  Rockall,  300 

Stevenson,  David  and  Thomas  :  works 
carried  out  by,  15,  53;  the  Chicken 
Rock  light,  94  ;  building  of  the  Dhu- 
Heartach,  114-20 

Stevenson,  family  of  engineers  :  pre- 
eminence of,  8-10  ;  systems  of  light- 
ing. 36-38  ;  adoption  of  electricity, 
219-22  ;  work  in  Japan,  258  ;  char- 
acteristics, 305 

Stevenson,  George,  and  the  Fastnet, 
122 

Stevenson,  Robert,  and  the  Bell  Rock 
lighthouse,    9,    97-100 ;    Skerryvore, 

lOI 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis,  "A  Family 
of  Engineers,"  8-9 

Stevenson,  Thomas,  9,  222 

Stewart  Island,  237 

Stornoway  lighthouse,  lighting,  53-54 

Strain,  Samuel  H.,  306 

Subsidiary  lights,  53-55 

Suez,  312 

Sugar-Loaf  Point  lighthouse,  232 

Sule  Skerry  lighthouse,  9,  39 

Sumatra,  257 

"Sun-valve,"  the  Dalen,  275-78 

Superior,  Lake,  lighting  of,  214,  216, 
217 

Sweden  :  floating  lighthouses,  291  ;  un- 
attended lighthouses,  277-82 

Swift,  Captain  W.  H.,  the  Minot's 
Ledge  light,  176-78,  182 

Sydney  lighthouse.  See  Macquarie 
Tower 

Tarartca,  steamship,  wreck  of  the,  236, 

237 
Tay,  Firth  of,  96 
Terawhiti,  Cape,  238 
Thames  lightships,  240-41 
Thomas,  O.  P.,  260 
Three  Kings  Rock,  236 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  268 
Tillamook  Head,  183 
Tillamook    Rock     lighthouse,     13-15, 

,183-95,  204  ;  the  keepers,  307-8 
Tiri-Tiri  Island  lighthouse,  236-38 
Torrain  Rocks,  113 
Tory  Island  lighthouse,  39 


INDEX 


325 


Trade,  Board  of:  collection  of  light 
dues,  7-8  ;  and  the  siren,  61  ;  Mr. 
Ingrey's  scheme,  64  ;  adoption  of 
electricity,  2ig 

Trewavas,  John  R.,  death  of,  14-15 

Triangle  Island,  British  Columbia, 
light,  174 

Trinity  House  Brethren  :  purchase  of 
patents,  6  ;  maintenance  of  English 
lights,  7,  26  ;  adoption  of  the  Daboll 
trumpet,  60  ;  and  the  Eddystone, 
77  ;  and  the  Wolf  Rock,  88-89  ;  and 
the  Whiteside  light,  93  ;  and  the 
Fastnet,  122,  adoption  of  electricity, 
218,  223 ;  the  light  on  the  Seven 
Stones,  248 

Trinity  House  Museum  :  Smeaton's 
clock,  76-77 ;  Bishop  Rock  fog-bell, 
85-86 

Triumph,  steamship,  wreck,  236 

Tyndall,  Professor,  59 

Tyree,  Island  of,  100,  102,  105,  107 

United  States  Corps  of  Engineers,  63, 
198 

United  States  Lighthouse  Board,  13, 
36,  195  ;  coastline  lighting,  20,  196- 
207  ;  methods  of  lighting,  46-47  ; 
inauguration,  198  ;  extent  of  control, 
206-7  ;  lighting  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
208-17  ;  lightship  service,  255  ;  adop- 
tion of  the  Aga  light,  294-95 

United  States  Typographical  En- 
gineers, 176 

Unst,  island  of,  112 

Ushant,  148,  156,  157 

Ushant  Island,  158 


Vancouver,  173  ;  coastline,  284 
Vancouver  Island,  174 
Victoria,  173 
Victoria,  steamer,  wreck,  303-4 

Waipapapa     Point     lighthouse,     236, 

237 
Walker,  James,  8  ;  Bishop  Rock  light, 

84-S 
Wanganui,  N.Z,,  233 
Water-gas,  48 
Wellington,  N.Z  ,  233  4 
Weser  River  estuary,  132 
West  Indies  lighthouses,  309 
White  ant,  ravages  of  the,  264  66 
White  Shoal  lighthouse,  215,  216 
Whileside  light,  92,  93 
Whistles  on  lighthouses,  58 
Wigham  light,  279-280,  282,  296-97 
Willson,     Mr.     Thomas  :    the    acety- 
lene   automatic    light,   285- 89,  291, 

294 
IVinchelsea,  wreck  of  the,  72,  74 
Windward  Point,  Cuba,  308 
Winstanley,    Henry  :     the    Eddystone 

lighthouse,  73 
Wireless  installation  :  on  the  Fastnet, 

131  ;    station,     Sable    Island,    167  ; 

Belle     He,    Southern     Point,     170  ; 

the  Eider  lightship,  249 
Wirral,  16,  309 
Wolf  Rock   lighthouse,    14  ;    blowing 

holes,  6z,  87-92  ;  relief,  311 
Women  as  lighthouse-keepers,  314-15 
Wrath,  Cape,  112 
Wreckers    of    the     Wolf    Rock,    88  ; 

Chinese,  258-59 


BILLING   AND  SDKS,   LTD.,    TRINTERS,   GUILI-FORD 


hBQZ     fm\ 


BOSTON   COLLEGE 


3  9031    030  42727  2 


